Transcript Document 7680843

Scope of Environmental Impacts
Materials
LifeCycle
Stages
Materials
Energy
Energy
Raw
Materials
Extraction
Wastes
Materials
Energy
Energy
Product
Manufacturing
Chemical
Processing
Pollution
Control
Materials
Wastes
Wastes
Use, Reuse,
Disposal
Pollution
Control
Wastes
Midpoints
global
warming
ozone
depletion
smog
formation
acidification
Human health
and ecosystem
damage
ecological
harm
Endpoint
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U.S. Energy Flows, 1997
Annual Energy Review 1997, U.S. DOE, Energy Information Administration, Washington, DC, DOE/EIA-0384(97)
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Efficiency of Primary and Secondary Energy
Example Problem 1.3-1
Determine the efficiency of primary and secondary
energy utilization for both incandescent and
fluorescent lamps of equal brightness (1200
lumens). Assume the following efficiencies in the
energy conversion





crude oil to fuel oil is 90%
fuel oil to electricity is 40%
electricity transmission and distribution is 90%
Incandescent light 75 W bulb is 7.2%
Fluorescent light 20 W tube is 27%
Lighting accounts for about 20 percent of all electricity
consumed in the United States
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Global Warming and Related Impacts
Materials Energy
Products
Chemical
Processing
O3
Cause and Effect Chain
greenhouse
gas emissions
CO2, CH4, N2O
climate change;
sea level change
human mortality
or life adjustments
N2 O
CH4
CO2
CFCs
Contribution to global
Warming; Phipps, NPPC,
http://www.snre.umich.edu/nppc/
Climate Change 1995, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, WMO and
UNEP, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
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Amount of CO2
Produced
Calculate the amount
of CO2 produced over
the lifetime of a 20W
compact fluorescent
lamp and compare
this to a 75W
incandescent lamp.
Examine the costs.
Assume the following:
Watts per Lamp/Fixture
Purchase Cost
Lamp/Fixture
Cost to Change
Lamp/Fixture
Life of Lamp in Hours
Lumens Output
75W Standard 20-W
Incandescent Compact
Fluorescent
lamp (CFL)
75
20
$0.50
$15.00
$1.00
$1.00
750
1,190
10,000
1,200
Rate Data
Energy Rate ($/kWh)
Demand Rate
($/kW Month)
Hours per Year
Lamp On
Months CFL Lamp Will Last
No. of standard lamps needed to equal
one CFL (lifetime)
$0.060
$8.000
3,000
40.0
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*Coal Generation = 2.37 lbs CO2/KWh.
**Average USA generation from all resources = 1.54 lbs
CO2/kWh
***Added 1/3 air-conditioning benefit (if applicable) = $17
Source: Federal Energy Management Program
http://www.eren.doe.gov/femp/techassist/greening_toolkit/lightcalc.html
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Answer to
CO2
production
Electricity
Calculations
75-W 20-W
Std. CFL
Total kWh Used
kW Demand
(Monthly)
750
200
0.075 0.020
kWh,
kW
Savings
550
0.055
CO2 Calculations
75-W 20-W
Std. CFL
1,778
474
1,155
308
CO2
Savings
1,304
847
75-W 20-W
Std. CFL
$7
$15
Dollar
Savings
-$8
Coal Generation*
All Generation**
$-Saving Calc.***
$ for Purchasing
Lamps
$ for Changing
$13
$1
$12
Lamps
$ for kW
$24
$6
$18
$ for kWh
$45
$12
$33
$ Total
$89
$34
$55
***Added 1/3 air-conditioning benefit (if applicable) = $17
 40months
CO2 produced  20 W 
 lifetime
 3000 hr  1 yr  1 kW  1.54 lb CO2 




  308 lb CO2 /life
 yr  12 mon  1000 W  kW hr 
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Stratospheric Ozone and Related Impacts
Materials
Cause and Effect Chain
Energy
Products
Chemical
Processing
ozone depleting
substances
CFCs, HCFCs
ozone layer loss
increase in uv
human mortality
or life adjustments
ecosystem damage
Toxics Release Inventory Data
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Smog formation and related impacts
Materials
Energy
Chemical
Processing
Products
Cause and Effect Chain
NOx and volatile
organic substances
NOx
photochemical
oxidation reactions
VOCs
human/ecological
damage from O3
and other oxidants
1 - Chemical & Allied Processing
2 - Petroleum & Related Industries
6
7
1
5
NOx
Miscellaneous
Transportation
2
4
3
3 - Metals Processing, 4 - Other Industrial Processes
5 - Solvent Utilization, 6 - Storage & Transportation
7 - Waste Disposal & Recycling
7
1
6
2
3
4
Industrial Processes
Fuel Combustion
1997
VOCs
1997
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National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1997, U.S. EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/chapter2.pdf
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Acid rain / Acid deposition
Materials
Energy
Chemical
Processing
Products
Cause and Effect Chain
SO2 and NOx
emission to air
Acidification rxns.
& acid deposition
human/ecological
damage from H+
and heavy metals
SO2
5
6
7
1997
Miscellaneous
4
1
Transportation
Industrial Processes
1 - Chemical & Allied Processing
2 - Petroleum & Related Industries
3 - Metals Processing
4 - Other Industrial Processes
5 - Solvent Utilization
6 - Storage & Transportation
7 - Waste Disposal & Recycling
Fuel Combustion
3
2
National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1997, U.S. EPA Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/chapter2.pdf
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Human Health Toxicity
Materials
Energy
Chemical
Processing
Transportation
Equipment
7%
RCRA
Hazardous
Waste
Primary
Metals
8%
Petroleum
Refining
9%
Products
Toxic releases to
air, water, and soil
Transport, fate,
exposure pathways
& routes
All Other
Industries
16%
EPCRA
Toxic
Rubber
Waste and Miscel-
Chemical /
Allied
Products
51%
Electronic
Equipment
9%
Allen and Rosselot, 1997
laneous
Petroleum Plastics
3%
Refining
3%
Human health
damage; carcinogenic & non...
All Other
Industries
23%
Paper and
Allied
Products
5%
Transportation
5%
Chemical
and Allied
Products
27%
Primary
Metals
22%
Fabricated
Metals
6%
Electronic
Equipment
6%
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Risk Assessment: Important Questions (Ch 2)

What are the risks associated with a chemical,
manufacturing process, or use of a product?

How is risk quantified by professional risk assessors?

Is risk assessment used by government agencies to
regulate industry? (Yes!)
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RISK
Voluntary Risk
Natural Disasters
Involuntary Risk
Hazards: Noncarcinogenic
Risk
Sources:
MSDS
NIOSH
IRIS (EPA)
ToxNet
=
Exposure
X
Hazard
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL),
Threshold Limit Value (TLV),
No Observable Adverse Effects Level (NOAEL),
Reference Dose (RfD),
Reference Concentration (RfC)
www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/pgdstart.html
http://www.epa.gov/ngispgm3/iris/index.html
Hazards: Carcinogenic
Risk
Sources:
IRIS (EPA)
ToxNet
=
Exposure
X
Hazard
Slope Factor (SF)
Weight of Evidence (WOE) classification
Dose/Response
Risk
=
Exposure
X
Hazard
How large a dose causes what kind of effect?
Effective Dose
(reversible)
Toxic Dose
(irreversible)
Lethal Dose
Crowl and Louvar, Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications, Prentice Hall, 1990
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Risk Assessment –
New for ChE’s at start of process
Risk
=
Exposure
Concentration in
Air,
Water
Soil
(g/m3)
Transmission Rate
(m3/s)
Duration
(s)
X
Hazard
Human Health &
Ecosystem
Effects
Exposure Assessment (Ch 6)
Risk


=
Exposure
X
Hazard
Occupational Exposure- exposure to people in the workplace
Community Exposure- exposure outside the workplace
Different modeling approaches and assumptions
Exposure Assessment Methodology - Community Exposure
1. Identify all waste stream components and concentrations
2. Estimate release rates to the air, water, and soil
3. Choose proper exposure pathways (through environment) and routes
(into humans)
4. Determine exposure concentrations at the point of exposure to humans
using measurements or an environmental fate and transport model
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Exposure Assessment - cont.
Multiple pathways
are possible
Exposure Routes
1. Inhalation
2. Ingestion
3. Dermal (skin)
Risk
=
Exposure
X
Hazard
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Risk Characterization
Risk
=
Exposure
X
Hazard
Carcinogenic
Risk Example
(inhalation route)
Risk i
(Ca  CR  EF  ED)

= 
 SF 
(BW  AT )

i
Result: # excess cancers per 106
cases in the population;
10-4 to 10-6 acceptable
Exposure Dose
(mg/kg/d)
Dose - Response Relationship,
Slope Factor (mg/kg/d)-1
Exposure Factors
CR = contact rate (m3 air breathed / day)
EF = exposure frequency (days / yr)
ED = exposure duration (yr)
BW = body weight (kg)
AT = averaging time (days) - 25,550 days for carcinogenic risk
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Risk Example Problem
A colleague has requested your
Solvent
Vapor Pressure
OSHA
advice on selection of a safe solvent
(kPa at 25°C)
Concentration
for a photoresist. A photoresist
PEL
consists of an acrylate monomer,
(ppm)
polymeric binder, and photoinitiator
furfuryl alcohol
0.1
50
applied to the surface of a copperclad laminate or silicon wafer. After
diethylamine
30.1
25
the solvent evaporates, the
ethyl acetate
12.6
400
photoresist is exposed to ultraviolet
light through a mask containing the
monomethyl ether
1.3
25
pattern to be etched on the circuit
methyl ethyl ketone
12.1
200
board or silicon wafer. When
exposed, the resist polymerizes and
n-butyl acetate
1.3
150
becomes insoluble to the developer.
The circuit board or silicon wafer is subsequently washed with the developer solution to remove
unpolymerized photoresist, exposing the pattern to be etched with acid into the copper metal or
the silicon wafer. Your colleague has identified the following solvents as suitable for
formulation of the photoresist.
a. Using the OSHA Permissible Exposure Limit as a surrogate for relative hazard rank these
solvents from highest hazard to lowest.
b. Using the vapor pressure as a surrogate for the magnitude of worker exposure to the solvent
vapors, rank these solvents from highest exposure potential to lowest.
c. Considering both hazard and exposure potential, which of these solvents would you
recommend to your colleague for the photoresist solution?
d. What alternatives can be used to reduce the risk associated with solvents even further?
‡
Maximum value for ethylene glycol (ceiling) which is disputed by NIOSH as inadequate 1988
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Solution
for Solvent
Selection
Example
Part A: from high to low risk by
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)
Solvent
VP
diethylamine
30.1
monomethyl ether
1.3
furfuryl alcohol
0.1
n-butyl acetate
1.3
methyl ethyl ketone
12.1
ethyl acetate
12.6
Vapor Pressure
(kPa at 25°C)
OSHA
Concentration
PEL
(ppm)
furfuryl alcohol
0.1
50
0.002
n-butyl acetate
1.3
150
0.0087
ethyl acetate
12.6
400
0.032
monomethyl ether
1.3
25
0.052
methyl ethyl ketone
12.1
200
0.061
diethylamine
30.1
25
1.2
Solvent
PEL
25
25
50
150
200
400
Risk  VP *
1
PEL
Part B: from high to low risk by Vapor Pressure
Solvent
VP
PEL
diethylamine
30.1
25
ethyl acetate
12.6
400
methyl ethyl ketone
12.1
200
monomethyl ether
1.3
25
n-butyl acetate
1.3
150
furfuryl alcohol
0.1
50
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Environmental Regulations:
the Regulatory Process (Ch 3)
Environmental Laws
• Clean Air Act of 1970
Rule Making
• publish proposed regulations
in the Federal Register
Administrative Agencies
• receive public comment on
proposed regulations
• US Environmental Protection Agency
• publish regulations in the
Federal Register
Environmental Regulations
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
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Environmental Regulations:
Changes Over Time
Major Laws/Amendments
Environmental Regulations
Bishop, “Pollution Prevention: Fundamentals and Practice”, McGraw-Hill, 2000
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The Manufacture of Chemicals
The 9 essential environmental regulations
Environmental
Statute
Date
Enacted
Purpose of
Legislation
Key Provisions
The Toxic Substances Control Act
(TSCA)
1976
Risk Assessment
of chemicals before introduction to
market
Chemical manufacturers, importers,
or processors, must test new chemicals and submit a Premanufacturing
Notice (PMN) to EPA.
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA)
Enacted,
1947
Amended,
1972
Assess pesticide
Registered with the EPA:
risks and control
proof of effectiveness and
usage & exposure. Safety to humans and environment
The Occupational
Safety and Health
Act (OSH Act)
1970
Control chemical
exposure in workplace
OSHA health standards for workers:
exposure limits to chemicals
physical hazards from equipment
develop (material safety data sheet
(MSDS).
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Discharges to Air, Water, and Soil
The 9 essential environmental regulations
Environmental
Statute
Clean Air
Act (CAA)
Date
Purpose of
Enacted Legislation
Key Provisions
1970
Discharge Standards for Air based on
1) uniform ambient air quality standards
2) hazardous air pollutants, stratospheric ozone depletion, and acid rain).
National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) for CO, Pb,
NO2, O3, particulate matter, and
SO2. States must develop
source-specific emission limits to
achieve the NAAQS.
Clean Water
Act (CWA)
1972
Discharges into waterways
(“zero discharge” goal).
National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES)
permit program. Requires: monitoring discharges, collect data,
and keep records of the pollutant
levels of their effluents.
Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA)
1976
Cradle-to-grave regulation
generation, transport, and disposal of
both non-hazardous and hazardous
wastes to land, encourage recycling,
and promote the development of alternative energy sources based on solid
waste materials.
Generators maintain records and
file reports to the EPA of hazardous waste generation and transportation.
Transporters and disposal facilities have similar requirements
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Clean-up, Disclosure, and Pollution Prevention
The 9 essential environmental regulations
Environmental
Statute
Date
Purpose of
Enacted Legislation
Key Provisions
The Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA)
1980
Identify and clean up of
hazardous waste sites.
EPA creates the National
Priority List (NPL).
Amended by the Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act
(SARA) of 1986.
EPA identifies potentially responsible
parties (PRPs) and notifies them of
their potential CERCLA liability,
which is strict, joint and several, and
retroactive.
The Emergency
Planning and Community Right to
Know Act (EPCRA –
part of SARA)
1986
1) to respond to chemical
release emergencies, and
2) compile an inventory of
toxic chemical releases to
the air, water, and soil from
manufacturing facilities.
Facilities must help state and local
entities to develop emergency response plans, and report annually to
EPA data on toxic substances .
Pollution Prevention
Act (PPA)
1990
Establish pollution prevention as the nation’s primary
pollution management
strategy with emphasis on
source reduction. Established a Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse.
Owners and operators of facilities
that are required to file a Form R under the SARA Title III to report to the
EPA information regarding the
source reduction and recycling efforts that the facility has undertaken
during the previous year.
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