Transcript DISTRIBUTED DATABASES Dr. Awad Khalil Computer Science Department

DISTRIBUTED
DATABASES
Dr. Awad Khalil
Computer Science Department
AUC
Distributed Databases, by Dr. Khalil
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Content
 DBMS
Architectures
 Functions of DDBMS
 Generic DDBMS Architecture
 Data Fragmentation
 Data Allocation
 Data Replication
 Query Processing
 Concurrency Control and Recovery
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Distributed Computing Systems
 Distributed
databases bring the advantage of distributed
computing to the database management domain.
 A Distributed Computing System
consists of a number of
processing elements, not necessarily homogeneous, that
are connected by a communications network and that
are cooperate in performing certain assigned tasks.
 A Distributed Database
is a collection of multiple
logically interrelated databases distributed over a
computer network.
 A Distributed Database management System (DDBMS)
is
the software system that manages a distributed database
while making the distribution transparent to the user.
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Parallel Versus Distributed Technology
 There
are two main types of multiprocessor
system architecture that are commonplace:


Shared memory (tightly coupled) architecture: Multiple
processors share disk storage and also share main memory.
Shared disk (loosely coupled) architecture: Multiple processors
share disk storage but each has their own main memory.
 DBMSs
developed using the above types of
architectures are termed Parallel DBMSs rather
than DDBMS, since they utilize parallel processor
technology.
 In shared nothing architecture, every processor has
its own main and secondary (disk) memory, and
the processors communicate over a high-speed
interconnection network (bus or switch).
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DBMS Architectures
 Centralized
Database
The database is stored at a
single computer site. A
centralized DBMS can
support multiple users, but
the DBMS and the database
themselves reside totally at
a single computer site.

All system component are
accessed remotely via
terminals to it but all
processing is done
centrally.
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DBMS Architectures

Shared Nothing Architecture
Every processor has its own
main and secondary (disk)
memory, and the processors
communicate over a highspeed interconnection network
(bus or switch).
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DBMS Architectures
 LAN-based
File Server
Networked small computers
(PCs) share data (and other
resources). Each has its own
software (such as DBMS). One
PC is designated as the file
server where the shared database
is stored.
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DBMS Architectures

Truly Distributed Database Architecture
The actual database and DBMS software are distributed over
many sites, connected by a communications network.
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System Architectures
 Traditional
 Three-tier
two-tier Client-Server Architecture
architecture
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Traditional two-tier Client-Server Architecture

Data-intensive business
applications consist of four major
components:

the database,

the transaction logic,

the application logic, and

the user interface.

The traditional two-tier clientserver architecture provides a
basic separation of tasks.

The client (tier 1) is primarily
responsible for the presentation of
data to the user,

The server (tier 2) is primarily
responsible for supplying data
services to the client.
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Traditional two-tier Client-Server Architecture
Problems !!
 The
need for enterprise scalability challenged the
traditional two-tier client-server model. In the mid1990s, as applications became more complex and
potentially could be deployed to hundreds or thousands
of end-users, the client side presented two problems that
prevented true scalability:


A “fat” client, requiring considerable resources on
the client’s computer to run effectively. This includes
disk space, RAM, and CPU power.
A significant client-side administration overhead.
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Three-tier Architecture

By 1995, a new variation of the
traditional two-tier client-server model
appeared to solve the problem of
enterprise
scalability.
This
new
architecture proposed three layers, each
potentially running on a different
platform:
 The user interface layer, which runs
on the end-user’s computer (the
client).

The business logic and data
processing layer. This middle tier
runs on a server and is often called
the application server.

A DBMS, which stores the data
required by the middle tier. This tier
may run on separate server called
the database server.
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Three-tier Architecture – Advantages !!

The “thin” client, which requires less expensive hardware.

By centralizing the business logic for many end-users into a
single application server, application maintenance is centralized.
This eliminates the concerns of software distribution that are
problematic in the traditional two-tier client-server model.

The added modularity makes it easier to modify or replace one
tier without affecting the other tiers.

Separating the core business logic from the database functions
makes it easier to implement load balancing.

The three-tier architecture maps quite naturally to the Web
environment, with a Web browser acting as the “thin” client,
and a Web server acting as the application server.
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Distributed Databases - Definition
distributed database: is a collection of
data that belongs logically to the same system
but is physically spread over the sites of a
computer network.
A
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Distributed Databases - Functions

Location Transparency: A user can submit a query that accesses distributed
objects without having to know where objects are.

Performance Transparency: A query can be submitted from any node in a
distributed DBMS and it will run with comparable performance.

Copy Transparency: The system supports the optional existence of multiple
copies of database objects.

Transaction Transparency: A user can run an arbitrary transaction that
updates data at any number of sites, and the transaction behaves exactly like a
local transaction and atomicity is maintained.

Fragmentation Transparency: A relation (class) can be divided into multiple
sites according to specified distribution criteria.

Schema Change Transparency: A user who adds or deletes a database
object from a distributed database need make the change only once and does
not need to change the catalog at all sites.

Local DBMS Transparency: The distributed database system provides
services without regard for what local systems are actually managing local data.
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An Example
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Additional required Functions

The ability to access remote sites and transmits queries and data
among the various sites via a communication network.

The ability to keep track of the data distribution and replication in
the DDBMS.

The ability to devise execution strategies for queries and
transactions that access data from more than one site.

The ability to decide on which copy of a replicated data item to
access.

The ability to maintain the consistency of copies of a replicated
data item.

The ability to recover from individual site crashes and from new
types of failures such as the failure of a communication link.
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Potential Advantages

Distributed nature of some database applications.

Increase reliability and availability.


Reliability: is broadly defined as the probability that a
system is running (not down) at a certain time point.
Availability: is the probability that a system is continuously
available during a time interval.

Allowing data sharing while maintaining some measure of local
control.

Improved performance.

Modular growth.

Lower communication costs
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Cost
 Software
cost and complexity.
 Processing
overhead.
 Data
integrity.
 Slow
response.
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Generic DDBMS Architecture
A
DDBMS is required to perform the following
functions:

Determine the location(s) from which to retrieve
requested data.

If necessary, translate the request at one node using
a local DBMS into proper request to another node
using a different DBMS and data model.

Provide data management functions such as
security, concurrency and deadlock control, query
optimization, and failure recovery.
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Generic DDBMS Architecture







In a DDBMS environment each site has a local DBMS that manages the
database stored at that site.
Also, each site has a copy of the distributed DBMS and the associated
distributed data dictionary/directory (DD/D).
The distributed DD/D contains the location of all data in the network, as well
as data definitions.
Requests for data by users or application programs are first processed by the
distributed DBMS, which determines whether the transaction is local or
global.
A local transaction is one in which the required data are stored entirely at the
local site.
A global transaction requires reference to data at one or more non-local sites to
satisfy the request. For local transactions, the DDBMS passes the request to
the local DBMS; for global transactions, the DDBMS routes the request to
other sites as necessary.
The DDBMSs at the participating sites exchange messages as needed to coordinate the processing of the transaction until it is completed (or aborted if
necessary). This process may be quit complex.
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Generic DDBMS Architecture

The generic DDBS architecture is based on the following components:

DDBS Global Language: Most DDBS have a global language for communication
between nodes, this includes; message protocols; languages and formats for specifying
queries; responses; and errors. Nodes need to translate to this language. Global language
consists of: Data Definition Language – defines the description of objects, and Data
Manipulation Language – manipulates queries. One global language therefore only one
kind of translator. Without this global language would need a translator to and from
every other language in the system.
 DDBS Nucleus: is responsible for co-ordination and control. The nucleus has to
verify the initiator of the query is authorized to access the distributed database, or part
of it, and check for bugs. It also has to perform query decomposition, as a logical unit
(relation) may be distributed over several nodes using a distributed data dictionary to
produce the sub-queries. Query optimization is also performed by the nucleus. The
DDBS nucleus also has a message distribution module that is responsible for
creating a DDBS message for each sub-query, and creating message log information for
control purposes when sub-responses (responses to sub-queries) are received back.
When all responses have been received or a time limit has been reached then the
appropriate information will be passed onto the response composition module.
Response composition module produces a single global response. The nucleus may be
completely centralized (global node). Alternatively, the functions of the global node are
distributed amongst all the query nodes.
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Generic DDBMS Architecture

DDBS Interface: is responsible for the mapping and translation
software. The interfaces between the local DBMS and the global
DBMS are:

Query Interface: It is the interface at the user/application end. Users
express the query in external query language (SQL) which may be the
language of the local DBMS or a special DDBS query language. This is
translated by the external/global query translation module to the global
language.

Data Interface: Translates from global to local language (may be SQL).
The query is processed in the normal way by DBMS and a local response
will be the result.
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Data Fragmentation Techniques

In a DDBS, decision must be made regarding which site should be used to store
which portions of the database. The simplest logical units of a database that can
be distributed are the relations themselves. There are several fragmentation
techniques:

Horizontal Fragmentation: A horizontal fragment of a relation is a
subset of the tuples in that relation. The tuples that belong to the horizontal
fragment are specified by a condition on one or more attributes of the relation. A
set of horizontal fragments whose conditions C1, C2, ..., Cn include all the
tuples in R - which is, every tuple in R satisfies (C1 OR C2, OR ... OR Cn) - is
called a complete horizontal fragmentation. In many cases a complete
horizontal fragmentation is also disjoint; that is, no tuple in R satisfies (Ci And
Cj) for any i <> j. To reconstruct the relation R from a complete horizontal
fragmentation, we need to apply the UNION operation to the fragments.
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Data Fragmentation Techniques

Vertical Fragmentation: A vertical fragment of a relation keeps
only certain attributes of the relation. A set of vertical fragments
whose projection lists L1, L2, ..., Ln include all the attributes in
R but share only the primary key attribute of R is called a
complete vertical fragmentation of R. In this case the
projection lists satisfy the following two conditions:
 L1  L2  ... Ln = ATTRS(R).
 Li  Lj = PK(R) for any i <> j, where ATTRS(R) is the set of
attributes of R and PK(R) is the primary key of R.

To reconstruct the relation R from a complete vertical
fragmentation, we apply the OUTER UNION operation to the
fragments. We could also apply the FULL OUTER JOIN
operation and get the same result for a complete vertical
fragmentation.
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Data Fragmentation Techniques
Fragmentation: The horizontal and vertical
fragmentations can be intermixed to yield a mixed
fragmentation. In this case the original relation can
be reconstructed by applying UNION and OUTER
UNION (or OUTER JOIN) operations in the
appropriate order.
 Mixed
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Data Fragmentation Techniques

In general, a fragment of relation R can be specified by a
SELECT-PROJECT combination of operations L(C(R)).

If C = True and L <> ATTRS(R), we get a vertical fragment.

If C <> True and L =
fragment.

If C <> True and L <> ATTRS(R), we get a mixed fragment.

A relation can itself be considered a fragment with C=True
and L= ATTRS(R).
ATTRS(R), we get a horizontal
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Fragmentation & Allocation Schemas
 A fragmentation
schema of a database is a definition
of a set of fragments that includes all attributes and
tuples in the database and satisfies the condition that
whole database can be reconstructed from the
fragments by applying some sequence of OUTER
UNION (or OUTER JOIN) and UNION operations.
allocation schema describes the allocation of
fragments to sites of the DDBS; hence, it is the
mapping that specifies for each fragment the site(s) at
which it is stored. If a fragment is stored at more than
one site, it is said to be replicated.
 An
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Data Replication & Allocation
Why replication ?
 Replication
is useful
availability of data.
in
improving
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Replication Levels



Fully Replication: The most extreme case is replication of the whole
database at every site in the distributed system, thus creating a fully replicated
distributed database. This can improve availability remarkably because the
system can continue to operate as long as at least one site is up. It also
improves performance of retrieval for global queries, because the result of
such a query can be obtained locally from any one site. The disadvantage of
full replication is that it can slow down update operations drastically, since a
single logical update must be performed on every copy of the database to
keep the copies consistent.
No Replication: Each fragment is stored at exactly one site. In this case all
fragments must be disjoint, except for the repetition of primary keys among
vertical (or mixed) fragments.
Partial Replication: Some fragments of the database may be replicated
whereas others are not. The number of copies of each fragment can range
from one up to the total number of sites in the distributed system. A
description of the replication of fragments is called a replication schema.
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An Example
Assumptions:
 The company has three computer sites one for each current department.

Site 1 is used by the company
headquarters
and
accesses
all
employees and project information
regularly, in addition to keeping track
of DEPENDENT information for
insurance purposes.

Sites 2 and 3 are for departments 5 and
4, respectively. At each of these sites
we expect frequent access to the
EMPLOYEE
and
PROJECT
information for the employees who
work in the department and the projects
controlled by that department. Further,
we assume that these sites mainly
access the NAME, SSN, SALARY, and
SUPERSSN attributes of EMPLOYEE.
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Fragmentation Schema

The whole database can be stored at site 1.

To determine the fragments to be replicated at sites 2 and 3, we can first
horizontally fragment the EMPLOYEE, PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, and
DEPT-LOCATIONS relations by department number. We can then vertically
fragment the resulting EMPLOYEE fragments to include only the attributes
{NAME, SSN, SALARY, SUPERSSN, DNO}. The resulting mixed fragments
are referred to as EMPD5 and EMPD4, which include the EMPLOYEE tuples
satisfying the conditions DNO = 5 and DNO = 4, respectively. The horizontal
fragments of PROJECTS, DEPARTMENT, and DEPT_LOCATIONS are
similarly fragmented by department number. All these fragments - stored at
sites 2 and 3 - are replicated because they are also stored at the headquarters
site 1.

We must now fragment the WORKS_ON relation and decide which fragments
of WORKS_ON to store at sites 2 and 3. The problem is that no attribute of
WORKS_ON directly indicates the department to which each tuple belongs. In
fact, each tuple in WORKS_ON relates an employee e to a project p. We
could fragment WORKS_ON based on the department d in which e works or
based on the department d that controls p.
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Fragmentation Schema








Complete and disjoint fragments of the
WORKS_ON relation.
(a) Fragments of WORKS_ON for
employees working in department 5
(C=ESSN IN (SELECT SSN FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO=5)).
(b) Fragments of WORKS_ON for
employees working in department 4
(C=ESSN IN (SELECT SSN FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO=4)).
(c) Fragments of WORKS_ON for
employees working in department 1
(C=ESSN IN (SELECT SSN FROM
EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO=1)).
The union of fragments G1, G2, and G3
gives all WORKS_ON tuples for
employees who work for department 5.
The union of fragments G4, G5, and G6
gives all WORKS_ON tuples for
employees who work for department 4.
The union of fragments G1, G4, and G7
gives all WORKS_ON tuples for projects
controlled by department 5.
The union of fragments G2, G5, and G8
gives all WORKS_ON tuples for projects
controlled by department 4.
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Allocation Schema
Site 2
We choose to include all fragments that can be joined to
either an EMPLOYEE tuple or a PROJECT tuple at sites 2
and 3. Hence, we place the union of fragments G1, G2,
G3, G4, and G7 at site 2.
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Allocation Schema
Site 3

We choose the union of fragments G4, G5, G6, G2, and G8
at site 3 (G2 and G4 are replicated at both sites).
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Types of Distributed Database Systems


Degree of Homogeneity
Homogeneous DDBMS: all
servers (or individual local
DBMSs) use identical software
and all clients use identical
software.
Heterogeneous DDBMS:
Servers and clients use different
software. In a heterogeneous
multidatabase system, one server
may be a relational DBMS,
another a network DBMS, and a
third a hierarchical DBMS; in such
a case it is necessary to have a
canonical system language and to
include language translators in the
client to translate subqueries from
the canonical language to the
language of each server.

Degree of Local Autonomy
No Local Autonomy: all access

Local Autonomy: direct access by local
to the
DDBMS must be gained through a client. A
DDBMS looks like a centralized DBMS to the
user. A single conceptual schema exists, and all
access to the system is obtained through a
client.
transactions to a server is permitted. Such type
of DDBMS is called federated DDBMS (or a
multidatabase system). In such a system,
each server is an independent and autonomous
centralized DBMS that has its own local users,
local transactions, and DBA and hence has a
very high degree of local autonomy. Each
server can authorize access to particular
portions of its database by specifying an
export schema, which specifies the part of
the database that may be accessed by a certain
class of nonlocal users. A federated system is a
hybrid between distributed and centralized
systems; it is a centralized system for local
autonomous users and a distributed system for
global users.
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Types of Distributed Database Systems
Degree of Distribution
Transparency

High Degree of Distribution
Transparency: the user sees a single
integrated schema without any
information concerning
fragmentation, replication, or
distribution.

No Distribution Transparency: the
user sees all fragmentation, allocation,
and replication. The user must refer to
specific fragment copies at specific
sites when formulating a query, by
appending the site name before a
relation or fragment name. This is a
part of a complex problem of naming
in distributed systems.
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Query Processing in Distributed Databases
Data Transfer Costs
 In a distributed system, the transfer of data over the
network is considered an important factor affecting the
processing and optimization of a query.
 This
data includes intermediate files that are
transferred to other sites for further processing, as well
as final result files that may have to be transferred to
the site where the query result is needed.
 DDBMS
query optimization algorithms consider the
goal of reducing the amount of data transfer as an
optimization criterion in choosing a distributed query
execution strategy.
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Example

Suppose that the EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT relations
are stored in site 1 and site 2, respectively and neither relation
is fragmented. The size of the EMPLOYEE relation is 100 *
10,000 = 1,000,000 bytes, and the size of the DEPARTMENT
relation is 35 * 100 = 3500 bytes.
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Example
1.
Q1



Consider that the query is
submitted at a distinct site 3:
“For each employee, retrieve
the employee name and the
name of the department for
which the employee works.”
The result of this query will
include
10,000
records,
assuming that every employee
is related to a department.
Suppose that each record in the
query results in 40 bytes long.
If minimizing the amount of
data
transfer
is
our
optimization criterion, we
should choose strategy 3.
2.
3.
Transfer both the EMPLOYEE and
the DEPARTMENT relations to the
result site, and perform the join at
site 3. In this case we need to
transfer a total of 1,000,000 + 3500
= 1,003,500 bytes.
Transfer the EMPLOYEE relation to
site 2, execute the join at site 2, and
send the result to site 3. The size of
the query result is 40 * 10,000 =
400,000 bytes, so we must transfer
400,000 + 1,000,000 = 1,400,000
bytes.
Transfer the DEPARTMENT relation
to site 1, execute the join at site 1,
and send the result to site 3. In this
case we have to transfer 400,000 +
3500 = 403,500 bytes.
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Example
1.
Q2
 Consider that
another
query is submitted at site
3: “For each department,
retrieve the department
name and the name of the
department manager.”


There are three simple
strategies for executing
this distributed query.
Again, we would choose
strategy 3.
2.
3.
Transfer both the EMPLOYEE and
the DEPARTMENT relations to the
result site, and perform the join at
site 3. In this case we need to
transfer a total of 1,000,000 + 3500
= 1,003,500 bytes.
Transfer the EMPLOYEE relation
to site 2, execute the join at site 2,
and send the result to site 3. The
size of the query result is 40 * 100
= 4000 bytes, so we must transfer
4000 + 1,000,000 = 1,004,000
bytes.
Transfer
the
DEPARTMENT
relation to site 1, execute the join
at site 1, and send the result to site
3. In this case we have to transfer
4000 + 3500 = 7500 bytes.
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Example
1.
Q3
 Consider
that
the
result site is site 2;
then we have two
simple strategies.
2.
Transfer the EMPLOYEE
relation to site 2, execute the
query, and present the result
to the user at site 2. Here,
we need to transfer the same
number of bytes (1,000,000)
for both Q1 and Q2.
Transfer the DEPARTMENT
relation to site 1, execute the
query at site 1, and send the
result back to site 2. In this
case we must transfer
400,000 + 3500 = 403,500
bytes for Q1 and 4000 +
3500 = 7500 bytes for Q2.
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Distributed Query Processing Using SemiJoin
 The
idea behind distributed query processing using the
semijoin operation is to reduce the number of tuples in a
relation before transferring it to another site.
 Intuitively,
the idea is to send the joining column of one
relation R to the site where the other relation S is
located; this column is then joined with S.
 Following
that, the join attributes, along with the
attributes required in the result, are projected out and
shipped back to the original site and joined with R.
 This
can be quite an efficient solution to minimizing
data transfer.
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Example
Q1 and Q2 Processing Using semijoin:
 Project the join attributes of DEPARTMENT at site 2, and transfer
them
to
site
1.
For
Q1,
we
transfer
F
=
DNUMBER(DEPARTMENT), whose size is 4 * 100 = 400
bytes,
whereas
for
Q2,
we
transfer
F’
=
MGRSSN(DEPARTMENT), whose size is 9 * 100 = 900 bytes.

Join the transferred file with the EMPLOYEE relation at site 1,
and transfer the required attributes from the resulting file to site 2.
For Q1, we transfer R = <DNO, FNAME, LNAME> (F 
DNUMBER=DNO EMPLOYEE) whose size is 34 * 10,000 =
340,000 bytes, whereas for Q2, we transfer R’ = <MGRSSN,
FNAME, LNAME>(F’  MGRSSN=SSN EMPLOYEE), whose
size is 39 * 100 = 3900 bytes.

Execute the query by joining the transferred file R or R’ with
DEPARTMENT, and present the result to the user at site 2.
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Concurrency Control and Recovery in Distributed
Databases
 Dealing
with multiple copies of the data
items.
 Failure
of individual sites.
 Failure
of communication links.
 Distributed
commit.
 Distributed
deadlock.
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Distributed Concurrency Control Based on a
Distinguished Copy of a Data Item
 The
idea is to designate a particular copy of each
data item as a distinguished copy.
 The
locks for this data item are associated with
the distinguished copy, and all locking and
unlocking requests are sent to the site that
contains that copy.
A
number of different techniques are based on
this idea.
Distributed Databases, by Dr. Khalil
46
Techniques
Primary Site Techniques. In this
method, all distinguished copies are
kept at one site, called the primary
site. The primary site is designated to
be the coordinator site for all database
items. Hence, all locks are kept at that
site, and all requests for locking or
unlocking are sent to that site.
Advantage:
 It is a simple extension of the
centralized approach.
Disadvantages:
 All locking requests are sent to a
single site, possibly overloading that
site and causing a system bottleneck.

Failure of the primary site paralyzes
the system, since all locking
information is kept at that site. This
can limit system reliability and
availability.
Primary Site with Backup Site. This
approach
addresses
the
second
disadvantage of the primary site method
by designating a second site to be a
backup site. All locking information is
maintained at both the primary and the
backup sites. In case of failure of the
primary site, the backup site can take
over as primary site, and a new back site
can be chosen.
Advantage:
 This approach simplifies the process of
recovery from failure of the primary site,
since the backup site takes over and
processing can resume after a new
backup site is chosen and the lock status
information is copied to that site.
Disadvantage:
 It slows down the process of acquiring
locks, because all lock requests and
granting of locks must be recorded at
both the primary and the backup sites
before a response is sent to the requesting
transaction.
Distributed Databases, by Dr. Khalil
47
Techniques
Choosing a New Coordinator Site
in Case of Failure.
Primary Copy Technique.



This method attempts to
distribute the load of lock
coordination among various
sites
by
having
the
distinguished
copies
of
different data items stored at
different sites.
Failure of one site affects any
transactions that are accessing
locks on items whose primary
copies reside at that sit, but
other transactions are not
affected.
This method can also use
backup sites to enhance
reliability and availability.



Whenever a coordinator site fails
in any of the preceding
techniques, the sites that are still
running must choose a new
coordinator.
In the case of the primary site
approach with no backup site, all
executing transactions must be
aborted and restarted, and the
recovery process is quite tedious.
For methods that use backup sites,
transaction
processing
is
suspended while the backup site is
designated as the new primary site
and a new backup site is chosen
and is sent copies of all the
locking information from the new
primary site.
Distributed Databases, by Dr. Khalil
48
Distributed Concurrency Control Based on Voting

In the voting method, there is no distinguished copy; rather, a
lock request is sent to all sites that include a copy of the data
item. Each copy maintains its own lock and grant or deny the
request for it. If a transaction that requests a lock is granted that
lock by a majority of the copies, it holds the lock and informs all
copies that it has been granted the lock. If a transaction does not
receive a majority of votes granting it a lock within a certain
time-out period, it cancels its request and informs all sites of the
cancellation.

The voting method is considered a truly distributed concurrency
control method, since the responsibility for a decision resides
with all the sites involved. Simulation studies have shown that
voting has higher message traffic among sites than do the
distinguished copy methods. If the algorithm takes into account
possible site failures during the voting process, it becomes
extremely complex.
Distributed Databases, by Dr. Khalil
49
Distributed Recovery


The recovery process in distributed databases is quite involved. In some cases it
is quite difficult even to determine whether a site is down without exchanging
numerous messages with other sites. For example, suppose that site X sends a
message to site Y and expects a response from Y but does not receive it. There
are several possible explanations:

The message was not delivered to Y because of communication failure.

Site Y is down and could not respond.

Site Y is running and sent a response, but the response was not delivered.
Another problem with distributed recovery is distributed commit. When a
transaction is updating data at several sites, it cannot commit until it is sure that
the effect of the transaction on every site cannot be lost. This means that every
site must first have recorded the local effects of the transactions permanently in
the local site log on disk. The two-phase commit protocol is often used to
ensure the correctness of distributed commit.
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50
Thank you
Distributed Databases, by Dr. Khalil
51