Transcript CSCE 580 Artificial Intelligence Ch.2: Intelligent Agents Fall 2008

CSCE 580
Artificial Intelligence
Ch.2: Intelligent Agents
Fall 2008
Marco Valtorta
[email protected]
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Acknowledgment
• The slides are based on the textbook [AIMA] and other
sources, including other fine textbooks
• The other textbooks I considered are:
– David Poole, Alan Mackworth, and Randy Goebel.
Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach. Oxford,
1998
• A second edition (by Poole and Mackworth) is under development.
Dr. Poole allowed us to use a draft of it in this course
– Ivan Bratko. Prolog Programming for Artificial Intelligence,
Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 2001
• The fourth edition is under development
– George F. Luger. Artificial Intelligence: Structures and
Strategies for Complex Problem Solving, Sixth Edition.
Addison-Welsey, 2009
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Agents
• An agent is anything that can be viewed as
perceiving its environment through sensors and
acting upon that environment through actuators
– Actuators are sometimes called effectors
• Human agent:
– eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors;
– hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for
actuators
• Robotic agent:
– cameras and infrared range finders for sensors;
– various motors for actuators
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Agents and Environments
The agent function maps from percept histories to actions:
[f: P*  A]
• The agent program runs on the physical architecture to
produce f
• agent = architecture + program
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The Role of Representation
• Choosing a representation involves balancing conflicting
objectives
• Different tasks require different representations
• Representations should be expressive (epistemologically
adequate) and efficient (heuristically adequate)
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The Vacuum-Cleaner World
• Environment: square A and B
• Percepts: [location and content] e.g. [A, Dirty]
• Actions: left, right, suck, and no-op
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The Vacuum-Cleaner World
Percept sequence
Action
[A,Clean]
Right
[A, Dirty]
Suck
[B, Clean]
Left
[B, Dirty]
Suck
[A, Clean],[A, Clean]
Right
[A, Clean],[A, Dirty]
Suck
…
…
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The Vacuum-Cleaner World
function REFLEX-VACUUM-AGENT ([location, status]) return an action
if status == Dirty then return Suck
else if location == A then return Right
else if location == B then return Left
What is the right function? Can it be implemented in a small agent program?
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Rational Agents
• An agent should strive to "do the right thing,"
based on what it can perceive and the actions it
can perform. The right action is the one that will
cause the agent to be most successful
• Performance measure: An objective criterion for
success of an agent's behavior
• E.g., performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner
agent could be amount of dirt cleaned up, amount
of time taken, amount of electricity consumed,
amount of noise generated, etc.
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
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Rational Agents
• Rational Agent: For each possible percept
sequence, a rational agent should select an
action that is expected to maximize its
performance measure, given the evidence
provided by the percept sequence and
whatever built-in knowledge the agent has.
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
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Rational Agents
• Rationality is distinct from omniscience (allknowing with infinite knowledge)
• Agents can perform actions in order to
modify future percepts so as to obtain useful
information (information gathering,
exploration)
• An agent is autonomous if its behavior is
determined by its own experience (with
ability to learn and adapt)
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The Concept of Rationality
• A rational agent is one that does the right thing
– Every entry in the table is filled out correctly
• What is the right thing?
– Approximation: the most succesful agent
– Measure of success?
• Performance measure should be objective
– E.g. the amount of dirt cleaned within a certain time
– E.g. how clean the floor is
– …
• Better to design performance measures according to what is
wanted in the environment instead of how the agents should
behave.
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Rationality
• What is rational at a given time depends on four things:
– Performance measure
– Prior environment knowledge
– Actions
– Percept sequence to date (sensors)
• DEF: A rational agent chooses whichever action maximizes
the expected value of the performance measure given the
percept sequence to date and prior environment
knowledge
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Rationality
Rationality  omniscience
– An omniscient agent knows the actual
outcome of its actions.
• Rationality  perfection
– Rationality maximizes expected
performance, while perfection maximizes
actual performance.
•
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Rationality
• The proposed definition requires:
– Information gathering/exploration
• To maximize future rewards
– Learn from percepts
• Extending prior knowledge
– Dung beetle and sphex wasp plans
– Agent autonomy
• Compensate for incorrect prior knowledge
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PEAS
• Task environment
– a problem for which a rational agents is the solution
– specified by the PEAS description:
• Performance measure, Environment, Actuators, Sensors
• Must first specify the setting for intelligent agent design
• Consider, e.g., the task of designing an automated taxi:
– Performance measure
– Environment
– Actuators
– Sensors
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PEAS for Automated Taxi
• Performance measure: Safe, fast, legal,
comfortable trip, maximize profits
• Environment: Roads, other traffic,
pedestrians, customers
• Actuators: Steering wheel, accelerator,
brake, signal, horn
• Sensors: Cameras, sonar, speedometer,
GPS, odometer, engine sensors,
keyboard
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PEAS for a Medical Diagnosis System
• Performance measure: Healthy patient,
minimize costs, lawsuits
• Environment: Patient, hospital, staff
• Actuators: Screen display (questions,
tests, diagnoses, treatments, referrals)
• Sensors: Keyboard (entry of symptoms,
findings, patient's answers)
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PEAS for a Part-Picking Robot
• Performance measure: Percentage of
parts in correct bins
• Environment: Conveyor belt with parts,
bins
• Actuators: Jointed arm and hand
• Sensors: Camera, joint angle sensors
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PEAS for an Interactive English Tutor
• Performance measure: Maximize
student's score on test
• Environment: Set of students
• Actuators: Screen display (exercises,
suggestions, corrections)
• Sensors: Keyboard
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Environment Types
• Fully observable (vs. partially observable): An agent's
sensors give it access to the complete state of the
environment at each point in time
• Deterministic (vs. stochastic): The next state of the
environment is completely determined by the current state
and the action executed by the agent. (If the environment
is deterministic except for the actions of other agents,
then the environment is strategic)
• Episodic (vs. sequential): The agent's experience is
divided into atomic "episodes" (each episode consists of
the agent perceiving and then performing a single
action), and the choice of action in each episode
depends only on the episode itself
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Environment Types
• Static (vs. dynamic): The environment is unchanged
while an agent is deliberating. (The environment is
semidynamic if the environment itself does not
change with the passage of time but the agent's
performance score does)
• Discrete (vs. continuous): A limited number of
distinct, clearly defined percepts and actions
• Single agent (vs. multiagent): An agent operating
by itself in an environment
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Environment Types
Fully vs. partially observable: an environment is full observable when the
sensors can detect all aspects that are relevant to the choice of action.
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
Deterministic??
Episodic??
Static??
Discrete??
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Fully vs. partially observable: an environment is full observable when the
sensors can detect all aspects that are relevant to the choice of action.
Observable??
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
Episodic??
Static??
Discrete??
Single-agent??
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Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Deterministic vs. stochastic: if the next environment state is completely
determined by the current state the executed action then the environment is
deterministic.
Observable??
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
Episodic??
Static??
Discrete??
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Deterministic vs. stochastic: if the next environment state is completely
determined by the current state the executed action then the environment is
deterministic.
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
YES
NO
YES
NO
Episodic??
Static??
Discrete??
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Episodic vs. sequential: In an episodic environment the agent’s experience
can be divided into atomic steps where the agents perceives and then performs
A single action. The choice of action depends only on the episode itself
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
YES
NO
YES
NO
Episodic??
Static??
Discrete??
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Episodic vs. sequential: In an episodic environment the agent’s experience
can be divided into atomic steps where the agents perceives and then performs
A single action. The choice of action depends only on the episode itself
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
YES
NO
YES
NO
Episodic??
NO
NO
NO
NO
Static??
Discrete??
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Static vs. dynamic: If the environment can change while the agent is choosing
an action, the environment is dynamic. Semi-dynamic if the agent’s performance
changes even when the environment remains the same.
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
YES
NO
YES
NO
Episodic??
NO
NO
NO
NO
Static??
Discrete??
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Static vs. dynamic: If the environment can change while the agent is choosing
an action, the environment is dynamic. Semi-dynamic if the agent’s performance
changes even when the environment remains the same.
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
YES
NO
YES
NO
Episodic??
NO
NO
NO
NO
Static??
YES
YES
SEMI
NO
Discrete??
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Discrete vs. continuous: This distinction can be applied to the state of the
environment, the way time is handled and to the percepts/actions of the agent.
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
YES
NO
YES
NO
Episodic??
NO
NO
NO
NO
Static??
YES
YES
SEMI
NO
Discrete??
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Discrete vs. continuous: This distinction can be applied to the state of the
environment, the way time is handled and to the percepts/actions of the agent.
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
YES
NO
YES
NO
Episodic??
NO
NO
NO
NO
Static??
YES
YES
SEMI
NO
Discrete??
YES
YES
YES
NO
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Single vs. multi-agent: Does the environment contain other agents who
are also maximizing some performance measure that depends on the
current agent’s actions?
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
YES
NO
YES
NO
Episodic??
NO
NO
NO
NO
Static??
YES
YES
SEMI
NO
Discrete??
YES
YES
YES
NO
Single-agent??
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
Single vs. multi-agent: Does the environment contain other agents who
are also maximizing some performance measure that depends on the
current agent’s actions?
Solitaire
Backgammom
Intenet shopping
Taxi
Observable??
FULL
FULL
PARTIAL
PARTIAL
Deterministic??
YES
NO
YES
NO
Episodic??
NO
NO
NO
NO
Static??
YES
YES
SEMI
NO
Discrete??
YES
YES
YES
NO
Single-agent??
YES
NO
NO
NO
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Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Environment Types
• The simplest environment is
– Fully observable, deterministic,
episodic, static, discrete and singleagent.
• Most real situations are:
– Partially observable, stochastic,
sequential, dynamic, continuous and
multi-agent.
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Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Agent Types
• Four basic types in order of increasing
generality:
– Simple reflex agents
– Model-based reflex agents
– Goal-based agents
– Utility-based agents
• All these can be turned into learning agents
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Agent Types
Function TABLE-DRIVEN_AGENT(percept) returns an action
static: percepts, a sequence initially empty
table, a table of actions, indexed by percept sequence
append percept to the end of percepts
action  LOOKUP(percepts, table)
return action
This approach is doomed to failure
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Simple Reflex Agents
• Select action on the basis
of only the current percept
– E.g. the vacuum-agent
• Large reduction in possible
percept/action situations
(example on next page)
• Implemented through
condition-action rules
– If dirty then suck
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The Vacuum-Cleaner World
function REFLEX-VACUUM-AGENT ([location, status]) return an action
if status == Dirty then return Suck
else if location == A then return Right
else if location == B then return Left
Reduction from 4T to 4 entries
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Simple Reflex Agent Function
function SIMPLE-REFLEX-AGENT(percept) returns an action
static: rules, a set of condition-action rules
state  INTERPRET-INPUT(percept)
rule  RULE-MATCH(state, rule)
action  RULE-ACTION[rule]
return action
Will only work if the environment is fully observable
• E.g., determination of braking in cars without centrally
mounted brake lights
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Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Model-Based Reflex Agents
• To tackle partially
observable environments.
– Maintain internal state
• Over time update state
using world knowledge
– How does the world
change.
– How do actions affect
world.
 Model of World
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Model-Based Agent Function
function REFLEX-AGENT-WITH-STATE(percept) returns an
action
static: rules, a set of condition-action rules
state, a description of the current world state
action, the most recent action.
state  UPDATE-STATE(state, action, percept)
rule  RULE-MATCH(state, rule)
action  RULE-ACTION[rule]
return action
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Model-Based Goal-Based agents
• The agent needs a goal to
know which situations are
desirable
– Things become difficult when
long sequences of actions are
required to find the goal
• Typically investigated in
search and planning research
• Major difference: future is
taken into account
• Is more flexible since
knowledge is represented
explicitly and can be
manipulated
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Utility-Based Agents
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• Certain goals can be reached
in different ways
– Some are better, have a
higher utility
• Utility function maps a
(sequence of) state(s) onto a
real number.
• Improves on goals:
– Selecting between
conflicting goals
– Select appropriately
between several goals
based on likelihood of
success
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Learning Agents
• All previous agent programs
describe methods for
selecting actions
– Yet the origin of these
programs is not
provided
– Learning mechanisms
can be used to perform
this task
– Teach them instead of
instructing them
– Advantage is the
robustness of the
program toward initially
unknown environments
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Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Learning Agents
• Learning element: introduce
improvements in performance
element.
– Critic provides feedback on
agents performance based on
fixed performance standard
• Performance element: selecting
actions based on percepts
– Corresponds to the previous
agent programs
• Problem generator: suggests
actions that will lead to new
and informative experiences
– Exploration
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