Transcript BBI3420 / 3436 ARGUMENTS

BBI3420 / 3436
ARGUMENTS
Persuasive Discourse
• Why do they want to persuade?
– Authors
– Advertisers
– Prosecutors
– Politicians
– Perspective employees
Persuasive Discourse
• Why do they want to persuade?
– Authors: the truth of particular ideas
– Advertisers: consumers to buy products
– Prosecutors: convince the jury that the
accused is guilty
– Politicians: the electorate to vote for them
– Perspective employees: employers to hire
them
Persuasive Discourse: Arguments
• Argument: a form of reasoning in which
one draws a conclusion based upon
particular pieces of evidence.
• Bierman and Assali (1996), “…a sequence
of statements in which statements, called
premises, are given as reasons or
evidence for the truth of a statement,
called the conclusion” (p. 33).
Persuasive Discourse: Arguments
• In persuasive communications, arguments
are very important because a speaker has
to convince the listeners.
• The speaker should be able to construct
arguments that have good argument
structures
•
Critical thinking is primarily about the
evaluation of arguments.
•
Definition of an argument:
1. a set of statements of which it is claimed
that one of those statements (the
conclusion) is supported by the others (the
premises).
2. a reason or reasons offered for or against
something
• ARGUMENT = CONCLUSION (assertion)
+
PREMISES
= THESIS STATEMENTS
+
SUPPORTING DETAILS
Example – A Simple Argument
1. Lawyers earn a lot of money. (Premise)
2. I want to earn a lot of money. (Premise)
3. I should become a Lawyer. (Conclusion)
• Sometimes some arguments have
unstated premise and conclusion.
• In this case, inference indicators
signal the occurrence of the premise
and conclusion.
• Example:
[Premise] “You can’t check books out of the
library without an ID card. So [conclusion]
Bill won’t be able to check any books out”
The word ‘so’ is the inference indicator to
signal the conclusion.
Identifying the conclusion
• An argument's conclusion is what the person
making the argument is ultimately trying to
convince you of, i.e., the person's point.
• To identify the conclusion of an argument 
'what does the person making the argument
want me to walk away thinking?'
(If the answer is 'nothing', then you're not
dealing with an argument.)
Identifying the conclusion
• Location
• Logical Indicator of words
• Analysis of the content of the
paragraphs
Identifying the conclusion
Location
1. The thesis of the paragraph, section
or article is often the conclusion.
2. Usually at the beginning, at the end
or both
Identifying the conclusion
Location
When the city reconstructs our street next
autumn, it should not widen it. I live on a hill
and my current driveway is very steep where
it connects with the street. If the city widens
the street, my driveway will be so steep that I
will scrape my tailpipe and bumper on the
asphalt, ruining my car and gouging the new
street. Keep the street that same width!
Identifying the conclusion
Logical Indicator of words
– Try putting the word "therefore" before each of
the statements in turn. The statement that fits
best will be the conclusion.
1. Lawyers earn a lot of money.
2.I want to earn a lot of money.
3. I should become a Lawyer.
Some Conclusion Indicator
Words:
• Look for conclusion indicator words, such
as:
therefore, consequently, as a result, thus,
it follows that, so, which shows that,
hence, accordingly
Identifying the Premises
• Every argument must also consist of at
least one premise.
• A premise is a statement that is meant to
support the conclusion. Ideally, a premise
provides a good reason for believing the
conclusion.
• (justification)
Some Premise Indicator Words:
• To identify premises, it often easiest to
look for premise indicator words, words
that are often used to introduce a claim as
a premise such as: because, since, as,
for, given that, as, judging from, seeing
that
Missing Premises and
Conclusions:
• People don't always come out and say what
their point is. Similarly people may not
always explicitly mention all the premises
they are working with.
• As a result, we must be prepared to identify
both missing premises and missing
conclusions (i.e., conclusions or premises
that are not explicitly stated by the arguer,
but that are implicit in what the arguer does
say).
Missing Premises and
Conclusions:
• Apply all our background knowledge about
the probable intentions of the author.
• Use an important principle of interpretation
called the Principle of Charity  tells you
always to interpret an argument so as to
make its reasoning the best possible.
Missing Premises and
Conclusions:
• "8:30 is too early to go to bed. All my
friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30.“
• If we were to put an inference indicator into
this argument, which indicator would we
choose and where would we put it? There
are two main choices:
Missing Premises and Conclusions:
• "8:30 is too early to go to bed. All my
friends are allowed to stay up till 9:30.“
• A: "8:30 is too early to go to bed,
therefore all my friends are allowed to stay
up till 9:30.“
• B: "8:30 is too early to go to bed, because
all my friends are allowed to stay up till
9:30."
Which is the better reading: A or B?
Exercise 1
Make a will. Otherwise,
the state will
determine who gets
your stuff.
(Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time You Faced
the Future?" 2001)
Identify the
premise(s) and
conclusion of
this argument.
Exercise 2
Because she could not
see so far, the children
were able to play in
safety.
Identify the
premise(s) and
conclusion of
this argument.
Exercise 3
The main reason I believe
Australia should have nothing
to do with SDI (Star Wars)
research is that the whole
plan is discredited. Hardly
any scientists of note support
it …
Find the
first word
of the
conclusion
Identify the inference indicator:
• Indian Classical music is very difficult to play
because it requires you to improvise in a very
sophisticated fashion.
• While many people realise that global warming
will change the nature of our agricultural
practices, very few people realise the extent of
the changes that are coming. Thus most people
in agriculture are quite complacent about their
current ways of doing things.
Identify the inference indicator:
• Indian Classical music is very difficult to play
because it requires you to improvise in a very
sophisticated fashion.
• While many people realise that global warming
will change the nature of our agricultural
practices, very few people realise the extent of
the changes that are coming. Thus most people
in agriculture are quite complacent about their
current ways of doing things.
Identify the inference indicator:
• Australia has only sufficient water resources to
permanently sustain a population of 15 million.
This means that the current Australian
population is much too large.
• Suppose I agree with you that economic
prosperity is not fairly distributed among all the
world's people. It doesn't follow that I have a
moral duty to do something about it. I am not
personally responsible for the plight of the
world's poor. I didn't impoverish them, so I am
not morally bound to help them.
Identify the inference indicator:
• Australia has only sufficient water resources to
permanently sustain a population of 15 million.
This means that the current Australian
population is much too large.
• Suppose I agree with you that economic
prosperity is not fairly distributed among all the
world's people. It doesn't follow that I have a
moral duty to do something about it. I am not
personally responsible for the plight of the
world's poor. I didn't impoverish them, so I am
not morally bound to help them.
Argument Structures
Types of Argument Structures
• 4 major argument types
1.
2.
3.
4.
Simple Arguments
Convergent Support Arguments
Linked Support Arguments
Serial Arguments
Simple arguments
• Simple arguments have one "layer" of premise.
That is, no premise also functions as a
conclusion.
1. Single Support Arguments
Example:
I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. Why?
They're practically giving it away.
• P1: They're practically giving it away.
• MC: I think I should buy this used Toyota
Corolla.
Convergent Arguments
• If a premise can stand on its own, i.e. if it adds to the
likelihood of the conclusion being true on its own, and
there is more than one premise like this, we have a
convergent argument.
I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. It is in
good shape, it gets good mileage, and besides, it is
within my budget.
• P1: The car is in good shape
• P2: It gets good mileage
• P3: It is within my budget
• MC: I should buy this used Toyota Corolla
Convergent Arguments
• If a premise can stand on its own, i.e. if it adds to the
likelihood of the conclusion being true on its own, and
there is more than one premise like this, we have a
convergent argument.
I think I should buy this used Toyota Corolla. It is in
good shape, it gets good mileage, and besides, it is
within my budget.
• P1: The car is in good shape
• P2: It gets good mileage
• P3: It is within my budget
• MC: I should buy this used Toyota Corolla
Convergent Arguments
• In convergent arguments,
the premises provide
different and independent
reasons for the claim.
Each can support the claim
by itself.
Convergent Argument
Nuclear power plants should not be built,
because they are dangerous. And, the power
from these plants is not essential. Finally,
these plants are not fair to future generations.
• Either premise provides support for the
conclusion without the other, although the three
together form a stronger argument than either
on its own.
Convergent Argument
Nuclear power plants
should not be built
they are
dangerous
the power from
these plants is
not essential
these plants are not fair
to future generations
Linked Arguments
• We link premises when it is clear that a premise
by itself will not lead to the conclusion.
Example:
I think I should buy this used Toyota
Corolla. I need a car, and I like this one.
• P1: I need a car
• P2: I like this car
• MC: I should buy this used Toyota Corolla
Linked Arguments
• Linked argument - one in
which the reasons are
dependent on one another for
their strength. They cannot
stand alone.
Linked Arguments
I think I should buy this used Toyota
Corolla.
I need a car
I like this one
a linked premise must link with one
or more other premises to form support
Linked Arguments
• Note that neither premise can stand by itself.
• Could the argument be, "I need a car, therefore I
should buy this used Toyota Corolla."? No,
because we might ask, why this car?
• Could it be "I like this car, therefore I should buy
this used Toyota Corolla."? No - just because
you like a car doesn't mean you should buy it.
• Both premises are needed together.
Linked Argument
• There is reason to think the
suspect is linked to this
crime. The shots were fired
from a jaguar; jaguars are not
usual to this area; and the
suspect owns a white jaguar.
Serial Argument
• A serial argument is a string of reasons
and conclusions in which every conclusion
is supported by one reason. Consider the
following argument:
Cheap imitations are unreliable and
therefore are likely to cost you a good
deal more in the long run. So you
should not buy cheap imitations.
Serial Argument
(1) Cheap imitations are unreliable and
therefore (2) are likely to cost you a
good deal more in the long run. So (3)
you should not buy cheap imitations.
In this argument, (1) is offered as a reason for (2)
and (2) is offered as a reason for (3). Both the final
conclusion (3) and the intermediate conclusion (2)
are supported by one reason. It is therefore a
serial argument.
Serial Argument
We diagram this argument as follows:
(1) Cheap imitations are unreliable
(2) [They] are likely to cost you a good deal
more in the long run.
(3) you should not buy cheap imitations.
Serial Argument
• Each intermediate conclusion is a premise for
the next step in the argument”
• One premise leads to another in a chain until it
leads to the conclusion.
• Before coming to a main conclusion of the whole
argument, there may be a series of subconclusion that follows from the previous
premises and then function as yet another
premise for the next conclusion, either sub or
main.
What Is Not an Argument?
An argument is a claim defended with reasons.
More precisely, a passage is an argument if and only if:
• It is a group of two or more statements.
• One of those statements (the conclusion) is claimed
or intended to be supported by the other(s) (the
premises).
What Is Not an Argument?
• Arguments consist entirely of statements
(sentences that it makes sense to regard as either
true or false).
Examples:
Red is a colour. (physical statement)
Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement)
The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic.
(evaluative statement)
What Is Not an Argument?
• Arguments consist entirely of statements
(sentences that it makes sense to regard as
either true or false).
– Questions, commands, and other kinds of nonstatements cannot be parts of arguments (Keep in
mind, however, that rhetorical questions should be
treated as statements.)
– What time is it? (question)
Close the window! (command)
Oh my goodness! (exclamation)
What Is Not an Argument?
• Statement test: Does it make sense to put “it is
true that” or “it is false that” in front of it?
• If so, it is a statement. If not, it’s not.
– What time is it? (question)
Close the window! (command)
Oh my goodness! (exclamation)
– Red is a colour. (physical statement)
Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement)
The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic.
(evaluative statement)
What Is Not an Argument?
• TRICKY STATEMENTS
• Rhetorical question: a sentence that has
the grammatical form of a question but is
meant to be understood as a statement.
Don’t you know smoking will kill you?
(means: Smoking will kill you.)
How am I supposed to do that? (means: I
can’t do that.)
What Is Not an Argument?
• No single statement is an argument.
• Arguments always consist of at least two
statements.
• Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed
or intended that one statement follows from one or
more other statements in the passage.
• In other words, a passage is an argument only if the
speaker or writer intends to offer evidence or
reasons why another statement should be accepted
as true.
What Is Not an Argument?
Reports
Unsupported
statements of
belief or
opinions
A statement or group of
statements intended simply to
convey information about a
subject.
Is a statement or set of
statements in which the speaker
or writer expresses his or her
personal opinion, but offers no
reasons or evidence to back up
that opinion.
What Is Not an Argument?
Illustrations
Conditional
Statements
Explanations
Is a passage intended to provide
examples that illustrate or support
a claim, not to provide convincing
evidence that the claim is true.
Is an if-then statement. It is an
assertion that such-and-such is
true if something else is true.
Is a statement or set of
statements that seeks to provide
an account of why something has
occurred or why something is the
case.
Example: Report
Planet Earth was much drier in the Triassic than
it is now, and there were large deserts in inland
areas. There were no flowering plants or
grasses--they evolved much later. The most
common trees were conifers, similar to today's
pines. Other large plants included yews,
ginkgos, and the palmlike cycads. Moistureloving ferns and horsetails thrived by lakes and
rivers.
(Philip Whitfield, Simon & Schuster's Children's Guide to Dinosaurs and Other Prehistoric Animals, 1992)
Example: Report
“More people moved to the south this year.”
“Oil prices dropped today, thus so did gas
prices.”
• Statements made to convey information.
• Notice that, even though there is a
conclusion indicator, this is still a report.
Example: Unsupported statements of belief or
opinion
For the person who called and said Larry
Bird was better than Michael Jordan, wake
up. No one was ever better than Michael
Jordan, not even Kareem in his glory and
not even Dr. J.
(From a newspaper call-in column)
Example: Illustration
Many wildflowers are edible. For
example, daises and day lilies
are delicious in salads.
Example: Conditional Statement
If Aida comes to the wedding then I will
come to the wedding.
Example: Explanation
I speak good English because my parents
encouraged me to practice it everyday.
Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg.
Tries to show why something is the case (not
argue that it is the case).
INFERENCE
Making inference
Why do you
think the cat
is in the tree?
Making inference
We don’t know
exactly why the cat
is in the tree, but
looking at the
picture, we can
guess that the dog
chased the cat up
the tree.
The guess that we
mad is called an
inference.
Inferring from Text
• What is an inference?
• An educated guess / a reasoned guess about what you
don’t know based on what you do know.
• When we make an inference, we draw a conclusion by
reasoning from evidence.
They inferred she was upset when she left the
room.
How did they know that she was upset?
 She was hysterical.
 There were tears in her eyes.
 She ran out and ignored the others although they tried to calm
her down.
Reading Tips:
• 1. Make sure your inferences rely mainly on the author’s
words rather than your own feelings or experience. Your
goal is to read the author’s mind, not invent your own
message.
• 2. Check to see if your inference is contradicted by any
statements in the paragraph. If it is, it is not an
appropriate or useful inference.
• 3. If the passage is a tough one, check to see if you can
actually identify the statements that led you to your
conclusion. This kind of close reading is a good
comprehension check. It will also help you remember the
material.
The following questions can be powerful igniters of
both text-to-text and text-to-self/world inferences.
Ideally, we can figure out ways to make such
inference-generating questions automatic:
• Who is doing the action? Why?
• How does a part fit into the overall text?
• What are the effects of an event, both psychological and
physical?
• What feelings does a person experience?
• What is the author’s purpose?
• What if I had been in that situation?
• How does this apply to my life or the world around me?
• What does this word mean?
Easy Money
Bob and Sam Collect cans. They sell the cans to
a recycling center. Lately business has been so
good that they have divided their work in half.
Bob’s area includes a park where teams play
baseball everyday. Sam collects cans from office
buildings and stores.
Many people drink canned drinks
Sam’s route includes office buildings
Bob and Sam earn more money now than when they
started.
Bob’s route includes a park
Easy Money
Bob and Sam Collect cans. They sell the cans to
a recycling center. Lately business has been so
good that they have divided their work in half.
Bob’s area includes a park where teams play
baseball everyday. Sam collects cans from office
buildings and stores.
Many people drink canned drinks
Inference
Sam’s route includes office buildings
Fact
Bob and Sam earn more money now than when they
started.
Inference
Bob’s route includes a park
Fact
What evidence can you find in
the text to support the issue?
• Look for details within the text
• Include: Example of the sentence, lines &
paragraph
Assumptions
• An assumption, is an unstated reason. It is
something that must be true for an
argument to work, but which is not
explicitly stated in the argument.
• Part of your belief system. Something you
don't question. Your mind takes for
granted that your assumption is true
Question 2:
You will be happy with your Internet
access if you sign up with Ampac. They are
the world’s largest ISP with over 12 million
subscribers.
• What is being assumed?
• Is biggest always the best?
• Just because Ampac is the largest ISP in the world, does
it mean that they will provide the best Internet service?
The argument holds together only
because this assumption was made.
Should you accept it?
Winning the Lottery
A woman gets home, screeches her car into the
driveway, runs into the house, slams the door
and shouts at the top of her lungs, "Honey, pack
your bags! I won the Lottery!“
The husband says, "Wow, I can't believe it!!
What should I pack, beach stuff or mountain
stuff?“
"It doesn't matter", the wife yells back, "just get
the HECK out!"
Assumptions vs Inference
Situation: Sara has got an F for her
July test.
Inference: Sara failed her English test.
Assumption: Sara did not study for her
test
Don’t Quote!
When answering a question that asks you
to identify an assumption, unlike when
answering other questions, you should
never give a quote from the text; by
definition, assumptions are unstated.
FACTS VS OPINIONS
WHAT ARE FACTS?
• A statement is a fact if you can answer yes
to these two questions:
Is it true?
Can it be proved?
What is an opinion?
• An opinion statement can be well thought
out but can’t be proved true or false – it is
always open to debate.
• Ask yourself:
• Does this statement tell a thought or
feeling?
• Would the statement be true all the time?
• Look for signal words
Opinion Caution
• Agreeing with a statement doesn’t make it
true. For example:
Dairy Queen ice cream tastes better than ice
cream you buy from the grocery store.
• Why is this statement an opinion?
o This is a personal judgment: someone else
may not agree.
o did you notice the signal word?
Identify the fact or opinion
Maryland is located in the United
States
Reading is the most interesting
subject in school.
The character of Cinderella should
marry the prince.
Bats use echolocation when they fly
to “see” where they are going
Identify the fact or opinion
Maryland is located in the United
States
Reading is the most interesting
subject in school.
The character of Cinderella should
marry the prince.
Bats use echolocation when they fly
to “see” where they are going
F
O
O
F
Authors use facts to support
opinions
• Ads promise that you’ll be happier if you buy
certain clothes or toys.
• Articles try to talk you into believing an idea.
• Speeches and propaganda try to persuade
you to change your mind to do something.
• These are examples of persuasive writing
– In persuasive writing the writer’s goal is to explain
why a reader should think, act, or feel the same
way he or she does.
THANK YOU