Transcript COLD WAR Chapter 30

COLD WAR
Chapter 30
Cold War
COLD WAR AND RECOVERY: 1945-1968
Roots of Cold War
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Teheran Conference, 1943: USSR guaranteed to be only power to liberate Eastern Europe
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Yalta Conference, 1945:
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Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in E Europe (but later reneged)
Germany would be divided into four zones controlled by U S , France, Britain and USSR
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Truman demanded free elections in Eastern Europe but Stalin refused
Stalin wanted a "buffer zone" between Germany and USSR for protection against future war Yalta
Conference (1945)
U S point of view:
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Stalin seemed intent on creating "spheres" of influence in Eastern Europe
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After war, Soviets dominated their zone and did not allow reunification of Germany
Potsdam Conference, 1945:
Broke pledges at Yalta; refused to allow reunification of Germany
Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946 alerted Americans to a future conflict
U S wanted democracy spread throughout the world with a strong international organization to maintain
global peace
Soviet point of view:
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Democracies traditionally hostile towards communism and the USSR
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US & Britain did not open western front in Europe early enough; millions of Soviet soldiers were dying
fighting the brunt of Nazi armies alone until mid-1944
The US and Britain froze Russia out of the atomic bomb project
US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May 1945 but gave Britain aid until 1946
Wanted "buffer zone" for the Soviet western border esp in Poland
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e g , Archangel expedition during WWI; non-recognition by U S until 1933
Cold War
• Partition of Germany
– USSR, U S , Britain & France would each occupy a part of Germany but
would allow for German reunification once she was no longer a threat
– Germany was to pay heavy reparations to USSR in form of agricultural
and industrial goods
– Soviets dominated their Eastern German zone
• Did not want revitalized Germany that could once again pose a threat
• Stripped E Germany of much of its resources
– U S and W Europeans felt German economy vital to recovery of
Europe
• 1949, West Germany became an independent country when US, France
and Britain gave back each of their zones
– Federal Republic of Germany – led by Konrad Adenauer
– 1949, East Germany formally established – Democratic Republic of
Germany led by Walter Ulbricht (1883-1973); communist regime
influenced by Moscow
Containment
"Containment": By 1947, US pledged to prevent further spread of communism
• Truman Doctrine, 1947: U S gave aid to Greece and Turkey to defeat communist
forces there
• Marshall Plan, 1947: Massive aid package to help war-torn Europe recover from the
war
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Berlin Crisis (1948-49): Soviets attempted to remove Allies from Berlin by cutting off
access
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One of high tension points of the Cold War; World War III?
U S instituted a massive airlift; Soviets lifted blockade in 1949
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed in 1949
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Purpose: prevent communism from spreading into economically devastated regions
Result: Western and Central Europe recovered economically -- the "economic miracle"
Soviets refused to allow U S aid to countries in eastern Europe
Collective security organization consisting of democracies in Europe, U S & Canada to
prevent against Soviet expansion in Europe
Radio Free Europe & Voice of America set up to send pro-democracy messages to
countries behind the "iron curtain"
Eastern Bloc
Eastern Bloc: countries in Eastern Europe dominated by Soviet Union after WWII
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Included Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Rumania, Bulgaria
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Postwar economic recovery in eastern Europe proceeded along Soviet lines
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Changes went forward at slow & uneven pace; came to almost a halt by the mid-1960s
Five-year plans in USSR reintroduced to tackle massive economic reconstruction
Stalin reinstitutes oppressive rule
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Communist parties of eastern Europe established one-party states by 1948, with help of Red Army and KGB
(Soviet secret police)
Only Yugoslavia, led by Marshal Tito, is not dominated by Soviets
Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland had fostered Russian nationalism and a relaxation of dictatorial terror
Stalin’s new foe, the U S , provided an excuse for re-establishing harsh dictatorship
After war, Stalin repressed millions of Soviet citizens living outside Soviet borders when the war ended
Stalin revived many forced labor camp, which had accounted for roughly 1/6 of all new construction in Soviet
Union before the war
Culture and art were also purged
Czechoslovakia
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Czechoslovakia the economic exception in E Europe: industrialized, strong middle class and industrial
working class and experience of political democracy between the wars
During “dualist period", President Benes and Foreign minister Jan Masaryk proposed to govern a social
democracy while maintaining close voluntary relations with the USSR
In response to Marshall Plan in 1947, Stalin replaced gov’t in 1948 with 1-party communist rule to prevent
nation from courting the West
USSR
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USSR under Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971)
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Power struggle emerged after Stalin died in 1953; Khrushchev emerged a few years later
Stalin’s heirs realized reforms were needed
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Widespread fear and hatred of Stalin’s political terror resulted in reduction of power of secret police and gradual closure of
forced labor camps
Agriculture in bad shape
Shortages of consumer goods
Hard work and initiative in decline due to poor living conditions
de-Stalinization
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XXth Party Congress, 1956: Khrushchev took startling initiative against hard-liners by denouncing Stalin’s crimes in a
closed session
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Gosplan: Resources shifted from heavy industry and the military toward consumer goods and agriculture –
Centralized Economic Planning
Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist views tolerated)
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Boris Pasternak (1890-1960) wrote Dr Zhivago in 1956
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Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who rejects brutality of revolution of 1917 & Stalinism; even as he is destroyed, he
triumphs from his humanity and Christian spirit
Aleksandr Solzenitsyn: One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962)
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Secret anti-Stalin speech probably most influential statement in Russia since Lenin addressed the crowd on arriving in April
1917
Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)
De-Stalinization resulted in communist reformers and the masses seeking greater liberty and national
independence
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Poland: March 1956, riots resulted in release of more than 9000 political prisoners, including previously purged leader
Wladyslaw Gomulka
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Hungarian Uprising, 1956
Students and workers in Budapest installed a liberal Communist reformer, Imre Nagy as new chief in October 1956
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Gomulka skillfully managed to win greater autonomy for Poland while keeping anti-Soviet feeling at bay
Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations demanding non-communist parties be legalized; turned into armed
rebellion and spread throughout the country
» Hoped U S would come in and help achieve Hungarian independence
Soviet tanks and troops responded by invading Hungary and crushing the national democratic revolution
János Kádár installed firm communist rule
After Hungarian invasion, most eastern Europeans hoped for small domestic gains while obediently following USSR in foreign
affairs
Economic Recovery
Post-War Political and Economic Framework
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Bretton Woods Conference (1944): created International Monetary Fund (IMF)
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Lay foundations for modern monetary system; based on U S dollar
IMF (World Bank) designed to loan money to struggling countries to prevent economic crises and anarchy; instrumental in post-war economic
boom
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United Nations created in 1945: Security Council (12 nations including 5 permanent members had powers to act; General Assembly
had powers to advise (included all nations of the world)
Western Europe political recovery
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Economic hardship after WWII: scarcity of food, runaway inflation, black markets
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Many people believed Europe was finished
Suffering was worst in Germany
Political restructuring
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Christian Democrats inspired by common Christian and European heritage
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Rejected authoritarianism & narrow nationalism; had faith in democracy and cooperation
Catholic parties also progressive in nature
Socialists and Communists also emerged with increased power and prestige, especially in France and Italy
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Pushed for social change and economic reform with considerable success
Result: social reform and political transformation created foundations for a great European renaissance
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Italy: Christian Democrats gained control in 1946 led by Alcide De Gasperi
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France:
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General Charles De Gaulle, inspiring wartime leader of Free French, re-established free and democratic Fourth Republic (resigned in 1949)
Catholic party provided some of best postwar leaders e g Robert Schuman
Socialist influence: large banks, insurance companies, public utilities, coal mines, and the Renault auto company were nationalized by gov’t
Britain followed same trend
Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany):
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Socialist influence: social benefits came to equal a large part of the average worker’s wages
1949, Konrad Adenauer began long, highly successful democratic rule
Christian Democrats became West Germany’s majority party for a generation
Great Britain:
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Clement Attlee, socialist Labour party leader, defeated Winston Churchill and the Conservatives in 1945
Attlee moved toward establishment of a “welfare state ”
Many industries nationalized, gov’t provided each citizen with free medical service and taxed the middle and upper classes more heavily
Economic Miracle
“Economic Miracle”: unprecedented economic growth in European history
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Europe entered period of rapid economic progress lasting into late 1960s
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By 1963, western Europe produced more than 2 5X more than before the war
Causes:
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Marshall Plan aid helped western Europe begin recovery in 1947
Korean War in 1950 stimulated economic activity
Economic growth became a basic objective of all western European governments
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Increased demand for consumer goods
Many economic barriers eliminated and a large unified market emerged: Common Market
German economic recovery led by finance minister Ludwig Erhard
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Governments accepted Keynesian economics to stimulate their economies
Germany and France were especially successful and influential
In most countries many people willing to work hard for low wages; expanding industries benefited
Combined free-market economy & extensive social welfare network inherited from Nazi era
By late 1950s, West Germany had robust economy, full employment, a strong currency and stable prices
France
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Combined flexible planning and a “mixed” state and private economy to achieve most rapid economic
development in its history
Jean Monnet: economic pragmatist and architect of European unity
France used Marshall Plan aid money and the nationalized banks to funnel money into key industries,
several of which were state owned
European Unity
European Unity
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Council of Europe created in 1948
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European federalists hoped Council would quickly evolve into a true European parliament with sovereign rights, but this did not happen
Britain, with its empire and its “special relationship” with U S , opposed giving any real political power—sovereignty—to the council
Schuman Plan, 1950 created the European Coal and Steel Community
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Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman
Special international organization to control & integrate European steel and coal production
West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, & Luxembourg accepted in 1952
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Immediate economic goal: a single competitive market w/o national tariffs or quotas
"The Six": By 1958 coal and steel moved freely among six nations of the European Coal and Steel Community
Far-reaching political goal: bind six member nations so closely together economically that war among them would become unthinkable and virtually
impossible
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Britain refused to enter
European Economic Community (EEC)
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Treaty of Rome, 1957
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Created European Economic Community (EEC) or the Common Market
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First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all tariffs among the Six in order to create a single market almost as large as the U S
Other goals:
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Signed by same six nations in the Schuman Plan – “the Six”
Free movement of capital and labor
Common economic policies and institutions
Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions specialized in what they did best
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EEC encouraged hopes of political and economic union
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Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence of more traditional nationalism
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Euratom (European Atomic Energy Agency) also created by agency
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Communist states responded by forming their own economic association--COMECON
France steps back from European unity
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Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in the election in 1958 of General De Gaulle who established the Fifth French Republic and ruled as
president until 1969
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Withdrew France from "US controlled" NATO and developed own nuclear weapons program
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De Gaulle twice vetoed application of pro-American British to European Union
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Britain did not inter until 1973
1950’s
Cold War in the 1950s
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1949, Communists in China led by Mao Zedong win Chinese revolution
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After WWII, Korea divided at 38th parallel: north was communist, south was not
1950, North Korea invaded South Korea (supported by Soviet resources)
UN (led by US & Gen Douglas MacArthur) sent forces to push back communists
Soviets boycotting UN for U S refusal to allow "Red China" into UN Security Council
China sends hundreds of thousands of troops to push back UN
Result: cease-fire and border at 38th parallel restored; still in existence today
Hydrogen bomb developed by US in 1952 & USSR in 1953: world now has two superpowers
Warsaw Pact, 1955: Collective security organization of eastern bloc nations to counter NATO
U S policy of "massive retaliation" between 1953-55
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Establish "Peoples Republic of China" ("Red China")
1949, Soviets successfully test atomic bomb
Korean War: 1950-1953
U S policy now is to help eastern European countries remove communism
U S vows to destroy USSR with nuclear weapons if it tries to expand
brinksmanship": the art of going to the brink of war to force the other side t back down
Relations between USSR and U S improve with ascension to power of Nikita Khrushchev
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Seeks “peaceful coexistence” with the West in order to focus on Soviet economy
Austrian Independence: USSR agreed in 1955 to real independence for a neutral Austria after 10 years of Allied occupation
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Krushchev sought to prove communism was superior to capitalism and the USSR would be the model communist state in the
world; "we will bury you ”
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Geneva Summit -- 1955 (July)
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Sputnik, 1957: (see below)
1958, relations sour with Khrushchev's ultimatum for Allies to leave Berlin: 6 month deadline passes without incident, extended
indefinitely
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Resulted in significant reduction in cold war tensions between 1955 & 1957
Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and Africa with promises and aid, even if they were not communist
US meets with USSR, Britain, & France to begin discussions on European security and disarmament; no agreements made
1960’s
Cold War in 1960s
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U-2 incident: U S spy plane shot down over USSR
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Berlin Wall built in 1961
2 million East Germans escaped to West Berlin between 1949-1961; Soviets frustrated
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Khrushchev demanded an apology from Eisenhower; Eisenhower refused
Promising Paris Summit in 1960 between Khrushchev and Eisenhower aborted
Khrushchev threatened President Kennedy: USSR would sign peace treaty with East Germany who would then control access to
Berlin; Soviets would protect East Germany’s right to control flow into Berlin
Berlin Wall built instead of enforcing ultimatum to U S ; ended future crises over Berlin
Cuba became a communist country in 1959 under leadership of Fidel Castro
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Cuba became an ally of the Soviet Union
Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961: U S -trained Cuban exiles tried unsuccessfully to invade Cuba
Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962: U S demanded Soviets remove their newly installed nuclear missiles from Cuba
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Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963:
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His cold war foreign policies erratic & ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban Missile Crisis)
Expensive space and armaments programs postponed any significant shift to consumer goods
Most important reason: agricultural projects backfired
Resurgence of conservative Stalinists led to quiet removal of Khrushchev in October, 1964
Leonid Brezhnev became new General Secretary (1964-1982)
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Khrushchev, Kennedy & Britain signed historic treaty banning atmospheric testing in an attempt to reduce Cold War tensions
France refused to sign (was in the process of developing own nuclear weapons program)
China became a nuclear power in 1964 leading to its estrangement with Soviet Union
Fall of Khrushchev, 1964
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Crisis became the closest USSR and US came to nuclear war
U S placed blockade (naval quarantine) on any further missiles into Cuba
Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return for U S removing its missiles from Turkey and vowing not to invade Cuba in the future
Crisis weakened Khrushchev and contributed to his downfall in 1964
Beginning in 1964, USSR began a period of stagnation and limited re-Stalinization
Massive arms buildup started in response to humiliation of Cuban Missile Crisis
USSR avoided direct confrontation with the U S and seemed more committed to peaceful coexistence than Khrushchev had been
Vietnam War (1964-1973): U S fought unsuccessful war in Southeast Asia to prevent communism from spreading
into South Vietnam
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“Domino Theory”: U S believed if Vietnam fell to communism, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand would also fall (perhaps even India)
(1964-1973)
Society after WWII
SOCIETY AFTER WORLD WAR II
Science and Technology
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For first time in history, “pure theoretical” science and “practical” technology (”applied science”) effectively joined together on massive
scale during WWII
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British scientists developed radar to detect enemy aircraft
Jet aircraft developed by Germany
Electronic computers further developed; had barely come into existence before 1939
Manhattan Project: Atomic bomb most spectacular result of scientific research during the war; project overseen by J Robert Oppenheimer
“Big Science” became new model for science after WWII
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Combined theoretical work with sophisticated engineering in a large, often huge organization
U S emerged as leader in Big Science after WWII
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Space Race (part of Cold War competition to achieve technological superiority)
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1957, USSR launched Sputnik, an orbiting satellite using long-range rockets
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US fearful Soviets could now launch a nuclear missile into space and then down to U S
Resulted in development of ICBMs (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles)
U S countered with creation of NASA and vastly increased educational funding for science
1961, Soviets sent world’s first cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, into orbit
President John F Kennedy responded by increasing funds for space
1969, Apollo Program put first man on the moon; 4 more moon landings followed by 1972
“Brain Drain”: U S attracted many of Europe’s best scientists during 1950s and 1960s—seen as the American Challenge
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Some Europeans feared Europe was falling behind U S in science, technology, and most dynamic industrial sectors of the late 20th century
Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on Big Science projects:
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Science not demobilized after WWII either in U S or USSR
Large portion of all postwar scientific research went for “defense” (25%!)
Concorde supersonic passenger airliner and peaceful uses of atomic energy
Massive growth of scientific community
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Four times as many scientists in Europe and North America in 1975 as in 1945
Highly specialized modern scientists and technologists worked as members of a team, which completely changed work and lifestyle of modern
scientists
James Watson and Francis Crick win Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering structure of DNA
Society after WWII
Change in class structure and social reform
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Rise of the middle-class largely result of increased access to higher education
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European society became more mobile and democratic
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Changes in structure of middle class influential in trend toward less rigid class structure
Causes for change in rise of middle class
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New middle-class, based largely on specialized skills and high levels of education, more open, democratic, and insecure than old propertied middle class
Rapid industrial and technological expansion created in large corporations and gov’t agencies became powerful demand for technologists and managers
Old propertied middle class lost control of many family-owned businesses
Top managers and ranking civil servants represented model for new middle class of salaried specialists; well paid and highly trained
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Mass exodus from farms and countryside
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Industrial working class ceased to expand while job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly
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Passed on opportunity for advanced education to their children
Structure of lower classes also became more flexible and open
Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europe’s most traditional and least mobile groups
European governments reduced class tensions by further expanding social security reforms: health care, family allowances, maternity
grants, public housing
Consumerism worked to level Western society
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Sparked by rising standard of living giving more people disposable income
European automobile industry expanded phenomenally
“Gadget revolution”
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Like US, Europeans bought washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos
Purchasing greatly facilitated by installment purchasing
Increased social welfare resulted in more disposable income and less need to save for old age
Leisure and recreation became big business as workers worked fewer hours
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Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV, commercialized hobbies
Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts and exhibitions
Travel industry mushroomed most dramatically
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Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation largely aristocratic
Paid vacations required by law in most countries
Counterculture
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The youth movement and Counterculture
Counter-Culture: rebellion against parents, authority figures and status quo
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Baby boom after WWII developed distinctive and international youth culture
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Many raised in economic prosperity and more democratic class structure
New generation influenced by revival of leftist thought created a “counter-culture”
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Some youth rebelled against conformity and boredom of middle-class suburbs
Rock music helped tie counter-culture together
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Beatles, British rock band, became one of biggest pop groups in music history
Increased sexual behavior among many young people during 1960s and 1970s
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Youth in America took the lead
Age of first sexual experienced reduced significantly
Growing tendency of young unmarried people to live together on a semi permanent basis with little thought of
getting married or having children
Causes of the emergence of international youth culture in 1960s
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Mass communication and youth travel linked countries and continents together
Baby boom meant youth became unusually large part of population and exercised
exceptional influence on society as a whole
Postwar prosperity and greater equality gave youth more purchasing power than ever before
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Youth to set mass trends and fads in everything from music to chemical stimulants
Common patterns of consumption and behavior fostered generational loyalty
Good jobs were readily available
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High demand for workers meant youth had little need to fear punishment from straight-laced
employers for unconventional behavior
Student Revolts
Student Revolts in the late 1960s
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Causes
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Opposition to U S war in Vietnam triggered revolutionary ferment among youths
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Students in western Europe shared US youth's rejection of materialism and belief that postwar society was repressive and flawed
Problems in higher education: classes overcrowded; little contact with professors; competition for grades intense; demanded even
more practical areas of study to qualify for high-paying jobs after college
Some students warned of dangers of narrowly trained experts ("technocrats") who would serve the establishment to the detriment
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French student revolt, 1968
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Students took over the university, leading to violent clashes with police
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Appealed to industrial workers for help; spontaneous general strike spread across France
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De Gaulle called in troops and called for new elections (which he won decisively)
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For much of the older generation in western Europe, the student revolution of 1968 signaled the end of illusions and end of an era
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Influenced by Marxist current in French universities after 1945 & new left thinking in US
Believed older generation & US fighting immoral & imperialistic war against Vietnam
Most students demanded changes in curriculum and real voice in running the university
To many it seemed the French Fifth Republic might collapse
The mini-Revolution collapsed
Czechoslovakia
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Due to Khrushchev’s reforms in USSR, 1960s brought modest liberalization and more consumer goods to eastern Europe
1968, reform elements in Czechoslovak Communist party gained a majority and voted out long-time Stalinist leader
Alexander Dubcek elected leader: ushered new period of thaw and rebirth in famous “Prague Spring” of 1968
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Soviet troops brutally invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968
Czechoslovakia became one of most hard-line communist regimes well into 1980s
Brezhnev Doctrine: Soviet Union and its allies had right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need
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Czech reformers building “socialism with a human face” frightened hard-line communists
De-Colonization
De-Colonization after WWII
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Postwar era saw total collapse of colonial empires
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Causes
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Between 1947 and 1962, almost every colonial territory gained independence
New nations of Asia and Africa deeply influenced by Western ideas and achievements
Modern nationalism and belief in self-determination and racial equality, spread from intellectuals to the masses in virtually every
colonial territory after WWI
Decline of European prestige: Japanese victories; destruction of Europe during WWII
After 1945, European powers more concerned about rebuilding; let colonies go
India played a key role in decolonization and the end of empire
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Indian National Congress: British had no choice but to develop a native political elite that could assist in ruling such huge
country
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Mohandas K Gandhi: after WWI led independence movement with principle of passive resistance (civil disobedience)
Jawaharlal Nehru led Congress party in its push for independence
Clement Attlee and others in Labour party wished to focus on internal affairs
Lord Louis Mountbatten: appointed to supervise transition of India to independence
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Divided India into two nations: India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim)
China
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Exposure of young Indians to Western ideas of nationalism, socialism, and democracy led to demands for independence by the early
20th century
After WWII (defeat of Japanese invaders) a civil war broke out between communists led by Mao Zedong and Nationalists led by
Jiang Jieshi (Chang kai-shek)
Mao won the revolution and created a communist country: People's Republic of China
Vietnam
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After Japanese removed after WWII, French tried to reassert control of Indochina
Ho Chi Minh led the independence movement in the north
1954, defeated French forces at Dien Bien Phu
1954,Vietnam was divided into North (communist) and South (pro-Western); civil war resulted
U S defeated in attempt to prevent communist takeover of South Vietnam; Vietnam unified in 1975
De-Colonization
Arab Nationalism
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Arab nationalists loosely united by opposition to colonialism and migration of Jews to Palestine
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Israel and Palestine
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Egypt
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Balfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain favored creation of Jewish “national home” in Palestine—opposed by Saudi Arabia & Transjordan
Great Britain announced its withdrawal from Palestine in 1948
United Nations voted for creation of two states, one Arab and one Jewish
Palestinians vowed to fight on until state of Israel destroyed or until they established own independent Palestinian state; led to several wars and
numerous conflicts in late 20th century
Arab defeat in 1948 by Israel triggered nationalist revolution in Egypt in 1952
1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, the last symbol and substance of Western power in the Middle
East
France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, trying to take back control of Suez Canal
U S and Soviet Union demanded their withdrawal and the canal remained in Egypt's control
Algerian Crisis (mid 1950s)
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Algeria’s large French population considered Algeria an integral part of France
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General De Gaulle, who had returned to power as part of movement to keep Algeria French, accepted principle of Algerian self-determination
1962, after more than a century of French rule, Algeria became independent and the European population quickly fled
Crisis led to fall of the Fourth Republic and beginning of the Fifth Republic
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This feeling led ensuing war; bitter and atypical of decolonization
Sub-Saharan Africa
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Decolonization proceeded much more smoothly than in northern Africa
British Commonwealth of Nations: beginning in 1957, Britain’s colonies achieved independence with little or no bloodshed; entered a very
loose association with Britain
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1958, De Gaulle offered leaders of French black Africa choice of total break with France or immediate independence within a kind of French
commonwealth
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Cultural imperialism continued
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Exception: Mao Mao society were a Kenyan group of terrorists/freedom fighters who fought to end English control of Kenya
All but one of new states chose association with France
France and Common Market partners saw themselves as continuing their civilizing mission in black Africa
Desired untapped markets for industrial goods, raw materials, outlets for profitable investment, and good temporary jobs for their engineers and teachers