Transcript Document 7197408

The New Europe
The Council of Europe
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Council of Europe created in 1948
European federalists hoped Council would
quickly evolve into a true European
parliament with sovereign rights, but this
did not happen.
Britain, with its empire and its “special
relationship” with U.S., opposed giving any
real political power—sovereignty—to the
council.
Cooperation on Coal and
Steel
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Schuman Plan, 1950 created the European Coal
and Steel Community
Put forth by French statesman Jean Monnet and
Foreign Minister Robert Schuman.
Special international organization to control &
integrate European steel and coal production.
West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, &
Luxembourg accepted in 1952.
Britain refused to enter, fearing separation from the
Commonwealth
Immediate economic goal: a single competitive
market w/o national tariffs or quotas.
"The Six"
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By 1958 coal and steel moved freely
among six nations of the European
Coal and Steel Community
Far-reaching political goal: bind six
member nations so closely together
economically that war among them
would become unthinkable and
virtually impossible.
European Economic
Community (EEC)
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Treaty of Rome, 1957
Created European Economic Community (EEC)
or the Common Market
Signed by same six nations in the Schuman Plan –
“the Six”
First goal of treaty: Gradual reduction of all tariffs
among the Six in order to create a single market
almost as large as the U.S.
Other goals:
– Free movement of capital and labor.
– Common economic policies and institutions.
– Tariffs were rapidly reduced and regions specialized in
what they did best.
The EEC in the 1960s
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EEC encouraged hopes of political and
economic union.
Union frustrated in 1960s by resurgence of
more traditional nationalism.
Euratom (European Atomic Energy Agency)
also created by agency.
Communist states responded by forming
their own economic association--COMECON
De Gaulle and European
Unity
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France steps back from European unity
Bitter colonial war in Algeria resulted in the
election in 1958 of Charles De Gaulle who
established the Fifth French Republic and
ruled as president until 1969.
Withdrew France from "US controlled" NATO
and developed own nuclear weapons
program.
De Gaulle twice vetoed application of proAmerican British to European Union.
Britain did not enter until 1973.
Community Expansion
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With De Gaulle gone and more
openness in Britain had the UK join in
1973 (along with Ireland and
Denmark)
Spain, Portugal and Greece joined in
the 1980s
Sweden, Finland, and Austria joined in
the 1990s.
The European Union
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European Union (EU) went into effect in
1993
European Community (EC) renamed to
European Union in 1996
Chancellor Kohl and President Mitterrand
sought to extend the EU to include a single
European currency and a common defense
and foreign policy
British prime minister Margaret Thatcher led
opposition until she resigned in November
1990, replaced by conservative successor
John Major who urged a limited federalism.
Maastricht Treaty, 1991
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Promised most radical revision of the EC
since its beginning.
Euro became the single currency of the EU
in 1999 (went into circulation in 2002)
integrating the currency of 11 western and
central European nations.
Proposals to form common foreign and
defense policies.
Increased use of majority voting.
Greater parliamentary consultation.
By 1995 EU had 15 members
By 2004 it had 25 members
USSR under Nikita
Khrushchev
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Power struggle emerged after Stalin
died in 1953; Khrushchev emerged a
few years later
Stalin’s heirs realized reforms were
needed.
Widespread fear and hatred of Stalin’s
political terror resulted in reduction of
power of secret police and gradual
closure of forced labor camps.
Agriculture in bad shape.
Shortages of consumer goods.
Hard work and initiative in decline due
to poor living conditions.
De-Stalinization
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XXth Party Congress, 1956: Khrushchev
took startling initiative against hard-liners
by denouncing Stalin’s crimes in a closed
session.
Secret anti-Stalin speech probably most
influential statement in Russia since Lenin
addressed the crowd on arriving in April
1917.
Gosplan: Resources shifted from heavy
industry and the military toward consumer
goods and agriculture – Centralized
Economic Planning
De-Stalinization
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Great ferment in the arts (anti-Stalinist
views tolerated)
Boris Pasternak (1890-1960) wrote Dr.
Zhivago in 1956.
– Story of prerevolutionary intellectual who rejects
brutality of revolution of 1917 & Stalinism; even
as he is destroyed, he triumphs from his
humanity and Christian spirit.
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Aleksandr Solzenitsyn: One Day in the
Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962)
– Portrays in grim detail life in Stalinist
concentration camp (he had been a prisoner)
Effects of De-Stalinization
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De-Stalinization resulted in
communist reformers and the
masses seeking greater liberty
and national independence.
Poland: March 1956, riots resulted
in release of more than 9000
political prisoners, including
previously purged leader
Wladyslaw Gomulka.
Gomulka skillfully managed to win
greater autonomy for Poland
while keeping anti-Soviet feeling
at bay.
Hungarian Uprising, 1956
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Students and workers in Budapest installed a liberal
Communist reformer, Imre Nagy as new chief in
October 1956.
Hungarian nationalists staged huge demonstrations
demanding non-communist parties be legalized;
turned into armed rebellion and spread throughout
the country.
Hoped U.S. would come in and help achieve
Hungarian independence
Soviet tanks and troops responded by invading
Hungary and crushing the national democratic
revolution.
János Kádár installed firm communist rule
After Hungarian invasion, most eastern Europeans
hoped for small domestic gains while obediently
following USSR in foreign affairs.
Cold War in the 1950s
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Relations between USSR and U.S. improve with
ascension to power of Nikita Khrushchev
Seeks “peaceful coexistence” with the West in order
to focus on Soviet economy
Austrian Independence: USSR agreed in 1955 to real
independence for a neutral Austria after 10 years of
Allied occupation.
Resulted in significant reduction in cold war tensions
between 1955 & 1957.
Krushchev sought to prove communism was superior to
capitalism and the USSR would be the model communist
state in the world; "we will bury you.”
Krushchev began wooing new nations of Asia and Africa
with promises and aid, even if they were not
communist.
The Berlin Wall
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Berlin Wall built in 1961
2 million East Germans
escaped to West Berlin
between 1949-1961; Soviets
frustrated
Khrushchev threatened
President Kennedy: USSR
would sign peace treaty with
East Germany who would
then control access to
Berlin; Soviets would protect
East Germany’s right to
control flow into Berlin.
Berlin Wall built instead of
enforcing ultimatum to U.S.;
ended future crises over
Berlin.
Fall of Khrushchev, 1964
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His cold war foreign policies erratic &
ultimately unsuccessful (Berlin, Cuban
Missile Crisis)
Expensive space and armaments
programs postponed any significant
shift to consumer goods.
Most important reason: agricultural
projects backfired
Resurgence of conservative Stalinists
led to quiet removal of Khrushchev in
October, 1964
Return of the Cold War
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Leonid Brezhnev became
new General Secretary (19641982)
Beginning in 1964, USSR began
a period of stagnation and
limited re-Stalinization
Massive arms buildup started in
response to humiliation of
Cuban Missile Crisis.
USSR avoided direct
confrontation with the U.S. and
seemed more committed to
peaceful coexistence than
Khrushchev had been.
European Society After
the Second World War
Science and Technology
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For first time in history, “pure theoretical” science
and “practical” technology (”applied science”)
effectively joined together on massive scale during
WWII.
British scientists developed radar to detect enemy
aircraft.
Jet aircraft developed by Germany
Electronic computers further developed; had
barely come into existence before 1939.
Manhattan Project: Atomic bomb most
spectacular result of scientific research during the
war; project overseen by J. Robert Oppenheimer
Big Science
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“Big Science” became new model for
science after WWII
Combined theoretical work with
sophisticated engineering in a large, often
huge organization.
U.S. emerged as leader in Big Science after
WWII
Science not demobilized after WWII either
in U.S. or USSR
Large portion of all postwar scientific
research went for “defense” (25%!)
The Space Race
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1957, USSR launched Sputnik, an
orbiting satellite using long-range
rockets
US fearful Soviets could now launch a
nuclear missile into space and then
down to U.S.
U.S. countered with creation of NASA
and vastly increased educational funding
for science.
1961, Soviets sent world’s first
cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, into orbit.
U.S. President John F. Kennedy
responded by increasing funds for
space.
1969, Apollo Program put first man on
the moon; 5 more moon landings
followed by 1972.
The Brain Drain
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“Brain Drain”: U.S. attracted many of
Europe’s best scientists during 1950s and
1960s—seen as the American Challenge
Some Europeans feared Europe was falling
behind U.S. in science, technology, and
most dynamic industrial sectors of the late
20th century.
Yet, revitalized Europe pooling resources on
Big Science projects:
Concorde supersonic passenger airliner
and peaceful uses of atomic energy.
Growth of Scientific
Community
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Four times as many scientists in Europe and
North America in 1975 as in 1945.
Highly specialized modern scientists and
technologists worked as members of a
team, which completely changed work and
lifestyle of modern scientists.
James Watson and Francis Crick win
Nobel Prize in 1962 for discovering structure
of DNA
Class Structure and Social
Reform
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Rise of the middle-class largely result of
increased access to higher education
European society became more mobile and
democratic.
New middle-class, based largely on
specialized skills and high levels of
education, more open, democratic, and
insecure than old propertied middle class.
Changes in structure of middle class
influential in trend toward less rigid class
structure.
Rise of Middle Class
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Rapid industrial and technological expansion
created in large corporations and gov’t
agencies became powerful demand for
technologists and managers.
Old propertied middle class lost control of
many family-owned businesses.
Top managers and ranking civil servants
represented model for new middle class of
salaried specialists; well paid and highly
trained
Passed on opportunity for advanced
education to their children.
Working Classes
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Structure of lower classes also became more
flexible and open.
Mass exodus from farms and countryside.
Resulted in drastic decline in one of Europe’s
most traditional and least mobile groups.
Industrial working class ceased to expand
while job opportunities for white-collar and
service employees grew rapidly.
European governments reduced class
tensions by further expanding social security
reforms: health care, family allowances,
maternity grants, public housing
Consumerism
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Sparked by rising standard of living giving
more people disposable income.
European automobile industry expanded
phenomenally.
“Gadget revolution”
Like US, Europeans bought washing
machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators,
dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos.
Purchasing greatly facilitated by installment
purchasing.
Leisure and recreation
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Increased social welfare resulted in more
disposable income and less need to save for old
age.
Leisure and recreation became big business as
workers worked fewer hours.
Soccer matches, horse races, movies, TV,
commercialized hobbies
Increased attendance in cultural events: concerts
and exhibitions.
Travel industry mushroomed most dramatically
Before WWII travel for pleasure or relaxation
largely aristocratic.
Paid vacations required by law in most countries
Philosophy
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Existentialism is a philosophical
movement which claims that individual
human beings have full responsibility for
creating the meanings of their own lives.
It is a reaction against more traditional
philosophies, such as rationalism and
empiricism.
In the 1940s and 1950s, French
philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre,
Simone de Beauvoir, and Albert Camus
wrote scholarly and fictional works that
helped to popularize themes associated
with existentialism: "dread, boredom,
alienation, the absurd, freedom,
commitment, and nothingness".
Jean-Paul Sartre
The Youth Movement and
Counterculture
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Counter-Culture: rebellion against parents,
authority figures and status quo
“Baby boom” after WWII developed distinctive and
international youth culture.
Many raised in economic prosperity and more
democratic class structure.
New generation influenced by revival of leftist
thought created a “counter-culture”
Youth in America took the lead.
Some youth rebelled against conformity and
boredom of middle-class suburbs.
Causes of Youth Culure
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Mass communication and youth travel linked
countries and continents together.
Baby boom meant youth became unusually
large part of population and exercised
exceptional influence on society as a whole.
Postwar prosperity and greater equality
gave youth more purchasing power than
ever before.
Youth to set mass trends and fads in
everything from music to chemical
stimulants.
Causes of Youth Culture
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Common patterns of consumption
and behavior fostered generational
loyalty.
Good jobs were readily available.
High demand for workers meant
youth had little need to fear
punishment from straight-laced
employers for unconventional
behavior.
Rock music helped tie counter-culture
together
Beatles, British rock band, became
one of biggest pop groups in music
history
1968 – Student Revolts
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Opposition to U.S. war in Vietnam triggered
revolutionary ferment among youths
Influenced by Marxist current in French
universities after 1945 & new left thinking in
US
Believed older generation & US fighting
immoral & imperialistic war against Vietnam.
Students in western Europe shared US
youth's rejection of materialism and belief
that postwar society was repressive and
flawed.
1968 – Student Revolts
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Problems in higher education: classes
overcrowded; little contact with professors;
competition for grades intense; demanded
even more practical areas of study to qualify
for high-paying jobs after college
Some students warned of dangers of
narrowly trained experts ("technocrats")
who would serve the establishment to the
detriment of working class.
1968 - France
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Students took over the
university, leading to violent
clashes with police.
Most students demanded
changes in curriculum and
real voice in running the
university
Appealed to industrial
workers for help;
spontaneous general strike
spread across France
To many it seemed the
French Fifth Republic might
1968 - France
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De Gaulle called in troops
and called for new elections
(which he won decisively)
The mini-Revolution
collapsed.
For much of the older
generation in western
Europe, the student
revolution of 1968 signaled
the end of illusions and end
of an era.
1968 - Czechoslovakia
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Due to Khrushchev’s reforms in
USSR, 1960s brought modest
liberalization and more
consumer goods to eastern
Europe
1968, reform elements in
Czechoslovak Communist party
gained a majority and voted
out long-time Stalinist leader.
Alexander Dubcek elected
leader: ushered new period of
thaw and rebirth in famous
“Prague Spring” of 1968.
1968 - Czechoslovakia
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Czech reformers building “socialism with a
human face” frightened hard-line communists.
Soviet troops brutally invaded Czechoslovakia in
August 1968.
Czechoslovakia became one of most hard-line
communist regimes well into 1980s.
Brezhnev Doctrine: Soviet Union and its
allies had right to intervene in any socialist
country whenever they saw the need
Economic Crisis
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Economic crises of the 1970s
Nixon takes U.S. off gold standard:
effectively ended the “Bretton Woods”
system of international currency
stabilization.
Fixed rates of exchange abandoned.
Great uncertainty replaced postwar
predictability in international trade and
finance.
Energy Crisis
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Postwar economic boom fueled by cheap oil,
especially in western Europe.
1973, OPEC (Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries) dramatically
increased oil prices in Europe and U.S. in
retaliation for their support of Israel in the
Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria.
Second price increase in 1979 during Iranian
Revolution hurt modest progress since 1976.
Economic Decline
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Price revolution in energy, coupled with upheaval in
international monetary system, plunged world into worst
economic decline since 1930s.
"Stagflation" hit in the mid 1970s: increased prices
and increased unemployment; rare
Debts and deficits piled up quickly in the 1970s and
1980s
Social consequences of the 1970s economic crisis
Created condition for collapse of communism in late
1980s.
Pessimism replaced optimism in society in general
Welfare system created in postwar era prevented mass
suffering and degradation.
Total government spending in most countries rose
during 1970s and 1980s
Conservative Resurgence
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Conservative resurgence in late
1970s and early 1980s: Thatcher,
Reagan, Mitterand
By late 1970s, powerful reaction
against increased governments’
role resulted in austerity measures
to slow growth of public spending
and the welfare state.
Margaret Thatcher in Great
Britain
Ronald Reagan in U.S.
Conservative Resurgence
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France in early 1980s attempted to
increase gov’t role but failed
Francois Mitterand led his Socialist
party and Communist allies in launching
a vast program of nationalization and
public investment designed to spend
France out of economic stagnation.
(Keynesian)
By 1983, this policy failed and Mitterand
was forced to impose wide variety of
austerity measures for the remainder of
the decade.
Reduction in spending for “Big Science”
(except cold war related spending)
Europeans and North Americans
developed a leaner, tougher lifestyle
Women
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Second wave of women’s movement first assumed
real significance in the late 1960s, gathered
strength in the 1970s, and won major victories in
the 1970s and 1980s.
Marriage and Motherhood
– In the postwar era, women continued to marry earlier.
– Typical woman in Europe, U.S. and Canada had children
quickly after marrying.
– Average of only 2 children per family
– Motherhood occupied a much smaller portion of a
women’s life than at the turn of the century.
– Birth control use increased with oral contraceptives and
intrauterine devices.
Women in the Workplace
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In 20th century, especially after WWII,
opportunities for women of modest means to earn
cash income at home practically disappeared.
Thus, sharp increase across Europe and North
America in number of married women who became
full-time and part-time wage earners outside the
home.
Rising employment of married women became a
powerful force in drive for women’s equality and
emancipation.
Rising employment for married women became a
factor in decline of the birthrate.
Women’s Rights
Movement
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Goals of women's rights movements
New statutes in the workplace: laws against
discrimination, “equal pay for equal work,” and
maternal leave and affordable day care.
Gender and family questions: right to divorce (in
some Catholic countries), legalized abortion, needs
of single parents I (usually women) and protection
from rape and physical violence.
In almost every country, effort to legalize abortion
became catalyst for mobilizing an effective women’s
movement.
Cold War in the 1970’s
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Ostpolitik:
Willy Brandt: "eastern initiative" - West German chancellor, began
to improve relations with Eastern
Europe
Brandt sought a comprehensive
peace settlement for central Europe
and a new resolution of the
“German Question.”
Negotiated treaties with USSR,
Poland, and Czechoslovakia that
formally accepted existing state
boundaries and the loss of German
territory to Poland and USSR in
return for mutual renunciation of
force or threat of force.
Ostpolitik
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Brandt’s gov’t broke with past and entered into
direct relations with East Germany.
Aimed for modest practical improvements rather
than reunification,
Brandt brought Germany’s Social Democrats to
national power for first time since 1920s.
Demonstrated two-party political democracy had
taken firm hold.
Result: West Germany’s eastern peace settlement
contributed to great reduction in East-West
tensions; Germany assumed a leadership role in
Europe.
East-West Détente
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U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger
and President Nixon tried to place
Brandt’s eastern initiatives in broader,
American-led framework of reducing EastWest tensions in early 1970s.
Feared Germany might become neutral thus
weakening NATO & US influence in Europe
Nixon hoped to gain Soviet aid in pressuring
North Vietnam into peace
Realpolitik
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Nixon & Kissinger believed U.S.
should pursue policies and make
alliances based on its national
interests rather than on any
particular view of the world.
Sought to play USSR and China
off each other
Nixon visited China in 1972:
Soviets concerned China & U.S.
might draw closer
Nixon visited Moscow, 1972:
ushered in an era known as
dètente.
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Sought to establish rules to
govern the rivalry between US
and USSR and China.
Cold War Thaw
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SALT I: Brezhnev and Nixon signed treaty to stop
making nuclear ballistic missiles and to reduce the
number of antiballistic missiles to 200 for each power.
MIRVs made SALT I obsolete (multiple warheads on one
missile)
Helsinki Conference, 1975
Final Act: Officially ended World War II by finally
legitimizing the Soviet-dictated boundaries of Poland and
other East European countries.
In return, Soviets guaranteed more liberal exchanges of
people and information between East and West and the
protection of certain basic “human rights.”
Yet, Moscow continued to squelch human rights in
Eastern Europe.
End of Détente
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Soviet invasion of Afghanistan led to U.S. refusal
to ratify SALT II treaty (reducing nuclear
armaments) and led to President Carter boycotting
1980 Olympics in Moscow
US stopped shipments of grain and certain
advanced technology to the Soviet Union.
Only Britain stood behind U.S. in its sanctions.
France, Italy and especially West Germany argued
that Soviet’s deplorable action should not be turned
into an East-West confrontation.
Soviet Bloc since 1968
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1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia was the crucial
event of the Brezhnev era.
Intense conservatism of Soviet ruling elite
determined to maintain status quo in Soviet bloc.
Re-Stalinization of USSR resulted, to a degree
Dictatorship was collective rather than personal—
through the Politburo.
Celebrated nonconformists as Alksandr
Solzhenitsyn permanently expelled from country.
“Solidarity” in Poland
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Polish cardinal elected Pope John
Paul II in 1979: traveled through
Poland preaching love of Christ
and country and “inalienable rights
of man.”
Popular movement of working
people organized a massive union
called “Solidarity.”
Led by Lech Walesa
Demands included right to form
free trade unions, right to strike,
freedom of speech, release of
political prisoners and economic
reforms.
“Solidarity” in Poland
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1981, Polish gov’t led by
Communist party leader,
General Jaruzelski
imposed martial law after
being warned by Soviets if
the Polish gov’t could not
keep order, Soviets would.
Solidarity was outlawed
and driven underground
but remained active.
Cold War in the 1980s
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The Atlantic Alliance revitalized itself
in the 1980s under the leadership of
Ronald Reagan in the U.S., Margaret
Thatcher in UK, and Helmut Kohl (b.
1930) of Germany.
In 1980s, all three nations believed
USSR remained a dangerous threat
(e.g. Afghanistan)
Margaret Thatcher became prime
minister in 1979.
Came to power after a year of bitter
strikes had eroded support for the
ruling socialist Labour party.
Advocated hard-line military positions
(as Reagan)
Cold War in the 1980s
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Falklands War (1982)
Argentine forces invaded and occupied
Falkland (or Malvinas) Islands, 500 miles
off coast of Argentina.
Thatcher sent fleet to retake the islands;
gained enormous popularity--reelected
Helmut Kohl, distinctly pro-American,
came to power with conservative
Christian Democrats in 1982.
Atlantic Alliance gave indirect support to
ongoing efforts to liberalize authoritarian
communist states in eastern Europe.
Despite repeated defeats, the
revolutions of 1989 ended Communist
domination.
The New Arms Race
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Dealt with Soviets from position of strength
by embarking on massive military buildup.
Reagan believed US could better bear
burden of the expense while the Soviets
couldn’t.
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) –
“Star Wars”:
1983, Reagan announced his intention to
pursue a high-technology missile-defense
system
Reagan’s dramatic increase in defense
spending placed enormous pressures on the
Soviet economy.
When Soviets shot down KAL007, Reagan
called Soviets the “Evil Empire”
End of the Cold War
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Mikhail Gorbachev assumed control of
Soviet Union in 1985 and sought reforms
Perestroika: (“restructuring”) Aimed to
revive the sagging Soviet economy by
adopting many of the free-market practices
of the West.
By 1987, program had clearly failed
Glasnost: Aimed to open Soviet society by
introducing free speech and some political
liberty, while ending party censorship; more
successful than perestroika
Demokratiztsiya: Began as an attack on
corruption in Communist party and as an
attempt to bring class of educated experts
into decision making process.
End of the Cold War
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March 1989: first free elections since 1917.
Gorbachev sought to reduce East-West tensions.
Withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan.
Encouraged reform movements in Poland and
Hungary
Repudiated Brezhnev Doctrine by pledging to
respect political choices of peoples of eastern
Europe.
INF Treaty signed by Gorbachev and Reagan in
Washington, D.C. in December 1987.
All intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe
banned.
Revolutions of 1989
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Costs of maintaining satellite countries for USSR
both politically and economically, were too much of
a burden for the Soviets too handle.
Poland: Solidarity legalized again and free
elections promised in June 1989.
First noncommunist leader in eastern Europe since
the Stalin era
Triggered a wave of freedom in eastern Europe
Lech Walesa became president in 1990 but
Solidarity later broke up into factions
Hungary: October 23, Hungarian leaders
proclaimed independent republic
Revolutions of 1989
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Berlin Wall comes down in
November; East German gov't falls
Germany reunified in 1990
Conservative-liberal “alliance for
Germany,” tied to West German
chancellor Helmut Kohl’s Christian
Democrats, defeated East German
Social Democrats.
July 1990, East and West German
economies merged.
Soviets opposed unified Germany in
NATO but eventually acquiesced when
West Germany provided massive
economic aid to Soviet Union.
Revolutions of 1989
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Czechoslovakia – the “Velvet
Revolution”
Vaclav Havel, the dissident
playwright, becomes president
Romania – Nicolai Ceausescu
overthrown and assassinated
Cutbacks in ICBMs
START I treaty signed in 1990
between Gorbachev and President
George Bush
Would cut 10% of U.S. nuclear
weapons and 25% of Soviet nukes
and limit ICBM warheads
Fall of the Soviet Union
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Coup in Moscow, 1991: communist
hard-liners, frustrated by loss of Soviet
power and prestige, attempted to
overthrow Gorbachev
Coup failed when military refused to
crush popular resistance
Boris Yeltsin, leader of Russia, defied
tanks and became a hero.
Coup fatally weakened Gorbachev and
spelled doom for the Soviet Union.
Fall of the Soviet Union
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Yeltsin and his liberal allies
declared Russia independent and
withdrew from the Soviet union—
all other republics followed.
December 25, 1991, Soviet Union
dissolved into 15 separate
republics
Republics remained economically
connected for a time via
Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS)
Russia assumed the Soviet
Union's seat in the United Nations
Security Council.
Russian struggle
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Yeltsin failed to significantly improve the
Russian economy
1993, Yeltsin became embroiled in a power
struggle with a conservative parliament
Parliament’s leaders, holed up in the White
House (the parliament tower in Moscow),
unleashed a crowd to assault the Kremlin
and the television center.
Yeltsin sent tanks against the White House;
120 killed and top floors of tower shelled
and burned.
Moscow had not seen such violence since
1905.
On New Year's Day, 2000, Yeltsin resigned
due to poor health and lack of popularity
Succeeded by former KGB colonel Vladimir
Putin
Eastern Europe
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Shift to market economy was difficult
No precedents existed to guide transition and legal,
institutional, and cultural underpinnings were
missing.
In short run, economic activity declined by 1/3.
Poland most successful: by 1993, GDP grew over
4%, & 5% in 1995; the fastest in Europe.
Czechoslovakia adopted world’s first mass
privatization scheme
Hungary’s economy was the freest in Eastern
Europe but changed more slowly.
Well-established private sector attractive to foreign
lenders; attracted nearly half of Eastern Europe’s
foreign investment.
Eastern Europe
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By 1995, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and
Hungary were doing well enough to be
taken seriously as potential European Union
(EU) members by the year 2000.
Continuing problems
– Unemployment figures about 15% throughout
most of region
– Inflation remained dangerously high in some
countries
– Governments ran large deficits
Political challenges
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Old ethnic hatreds of pre-1914 Central Europe
resurfaced
Slovaks seceded from Czechoslovakia on January 1,
1993; Slovakia much slower in drive toward
democracy and the market
Yugoslavia broke into civil war in early 1990s (see
below)
Former Communist parties returned to majorities in
freely elected parliaments in Lithuania (1992),
Poland (September 1993), and Hungary (spring
1994).
Walesa defeated in Polish presidential elections in
1995 by former Communist official.
But ex-Communists were now converted to
democracy and the market.
Reunification of Germany
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German unity changed face
of European politics:
Germany now an economic
powerhouse
“Ossies” (East Germans)
came to feel like 2nd-class
citizens in the face of
economic difficulties
Meanwhile, “Wessies” (West
Germans) resented years of
heavy taxation to rebuild the
east.
Breakup of Yugoslavia
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Cause: 1990 President Slobodan Milosevic
began giving concrete form to his greater Serbian
nationalism; established tighter central control over
previously autonomous regions
In response Croatia & Slovenia declared
independence and each fought Serbia in the
process
Bosnia declared its independence in March 1992
and the civil war spread there.
Bosnian Serbs (about 30% of pop.) refused to live
in a Muslim-dominated state and began military
operations assisted by Serbia and the Yugoslav
federal army; Sarajevo under attack
Breakup of Yugoslavia
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Ethnic cleansing: Bosnian Serbs tried to liquidate
or remove Muslims by shelling cities, confiscating or
destroying of houses, gang rape, expulsion, and
murder.
Several hundred thousand Bosnians killed
Dayton Agreements, 1995: Agreed to divide
Bosnia between Muslims and Serbs
Bosnian Serb aspirations to join a Greater Serbia
frustrated by U.S. President Bill Clinton and other
NATO troops sent to enforce the Dayton
agreements.
Indictment for war crimes of 7 Croats and 45
Bosnian Serbs; not enforced. Millosovic later
brought to trial.
Breakup of Yugoslavia
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Kosovo crisis, 1999:
Milosevic attempted to
ethnically cleanse Kosovo
(province of Serbia) of
ethnic-Albanians
NATO, led by U.S., bombed
Serbia in order to stop the
ethnic cleansing
Europe in the 21st Century
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The integration of Europe continues
through the expansion of the European
Union.
Questions exist as to the future of
European unity.
9/11 had significant impact on outlook.
– NATO support in Afghanistan
– Terror attacks in Europe (Madrid, London)
– Debate and disunity over Iraq invasion.