Transcript Document 7167347
Market-Led Pluralism: Re-Thinking Our Understanding of Racial/Ethnic Spatial Patterning in US Cities
Lawrence A. Brown and Su-Yeul Chung Department of Geography Ohio State University and Western Illinois University Columbus, Ohio 43210-1361; Macomb, Illinois 61455-1390 Third International Population Geographies Conference. June 2006 Liverpool United Kingdom
Vast Differences Between US City of Today Compared to Quarter and Half Century Ago Call for Rethinking Frameworks That Provide an Explanation of Clustering/Segregation Along Racial/Ethnic Lines
Portrayals
of residential patterning in US metros emphasize
SEGREGATION
Kaplan, Wheeler, and Holloway 2004
text :
“African Americans remain extremely
segregated
several decades after the civil rights movement” “Hispanics are more
segregated
than Asians “African Americans are highly
segregated
[but] some improvement” “
segregation
for Hispanics increased notably during the 1990s” Logan, Stults, and Farley (2004)
research paper :
“in every year [1980-2000], blacks were the most
segregated
group; Asians were the least
segregated
; black-white
segregation
decline[d];
segregation
of Hispanics and Asians remained almost the same; blacks remained more
segregated
from whites than were Hispanics or Asians”.
SUNY-Albany Lewis Mumford Center
institutional setting
: Present three decades of D-Indices (1980-2000) for US Metro Areas under the heading - “Exploring the persistent and changing nature of
segregation
in America's metro areas, large and small” Hence,
expect segregation
, high levels of
clustering
when considering
racial/ethnic residential patterning
in US city
How Then Do We Explain --
But we’re
not alone
--
NYT
on America’s Newest Suburbs - “Instead of all-white enclaves of the 1960's + 70's, new exurbs are a
mélange of colors and cultures
.”
Columbus Dispatch
on political strategy - “inner tier suburbs … extension of cities they surround [with]
increasing concentrations
of
ethnic minorities
, generally liberal attitudes on social questions … greater presence of singles in high rise and condominium developments … receptivity to arguments for environmental protection and planned growth
Terms
have been coined --
ethnoburb
,
invisiburb
,
saffron suburb
Questioning
relevancy
“of the U.S.
black-white model
, which reflects legacy of slavery including its contemporary forms of
discrimination
and resultant socioeconomic disadvantages ... [thus] rendering a
black-white portrait of America anachronistic
” Questioning “the reification of
white suburbia
as paramount space of American
cultural belonging
... [that] spatial assimilation
theory
normative objective of
propinquity to whites
remains
fixed
in
suburban locations
.” on the
Leads us to
question current-day significance
of three primary frameworks addressing racial/ethnic residential patterning --
Assimilation
,
Stratification
,
Resurgent Ethnicity
even as complementary constructs. - Concern especially sharpened after realizing, and probing into, role of
market makers
in present-day
racial/ethnic residential fabric
- Articulated as the
Market-Led Pluralism
framework.
Assimilation
A
ssociated with Melting Pot ideal; Stems from Urban Ecology school of 1920s Immigrants , having adapted to US society, then move into established neighborhoods that generally are spatially more distant from the CBD In context of today , similar idea – Racial/ethnic minorities relocate to higher status areas in closer proximity to majority Caucasian population, but melting pot ideal is less central
Structural Assimilation
, measured by socio-economic characteristics such as income and education , differentiated from
Cultural Assimilation
, measured by indicators such as English language ability and length of residence in US (for immigrants) Also
Segmented Assimilation
– options of (i) Acculturating middle class values of dominant Caucasian society ( traditional assimilation ), (ii) Gravitating to underclass , or (iii) Advancing maintaining strong ties socio-economically [and spatially] while with origin community culture and society
Stratification
Structural forces associated with housing discrimination , racial stereotyping , prejudicial preferences lead to segmented housing markets , neighborhood stratification Disadvantaged groups in terms of race/ethnicity relegated to particular places ; (upward) spatial mobility to other locations is impeded Resulting racial/ethnic location patterns seen to persist even though judicial, legislative, and societal changes in the latter half of twentieth century moved current practices far afield earlier ones from View consistent with occurrence of inertia effects on socio economic landscape (Brown, Lee, Lobao, and Chung 2005).
Resurgent Ethnicity I
Why does segregation persist
, after removal / amelioration of housing discrim, racial stereotyping, prejudicial preferences? Emphasizes
racial/ethnic preference
“ in-group attraction ” in residential choice, E.g. Asian + Hispanic immigrants who cluster in more affluent areas of New York / Los Angeles, sometimes without cultural assimilation such as language skills ( Logan, Alba, Zhang 2002 ).
Such racial/ethnic settlements better understood as “
ethnic communities
” driven by preference , rather than “immigrant enclaves” driven by economic and cultural constraints Generates
(re-)segregation
socio-economically feasible – even though and integration discrimination ( Assim ) ( Strat ) abated Occurs because
cultural + economic
are
decoupled
aspects of (im)migration
Resurgent Ethnicity II
Resurgent Ethnicity patterning occurs in (at least) three ways.
1.
Spillover Effects
related to invasion-succession; traditional enclaves and neighbors are insufficient to hold newcomers 2.
Chain Migration
; ties of immigrants with “assimilated” relatives or friends leads to settlement near them 3.
High socio-economic status
immigrants; settle directly in more affluent locales Resurgent Ethnicity articulated in terms of
immigrants
, but … Applies also
enclaves
to
native-borns
in
traditional racial/ethnic
who experience SES increase, and
Choose
traditional enclave that is commensurate with or another racial/ethnic enclave their SES .
Resurgent Ethnicity III
Implies two types of racial/ethnic neighborhood – 1.
Traditional Enclaves
that expand, absorb lower SES, less culturally assimilated immigrants, and native-borns 2.
New Racial/Ethnic Neighborhoods
in more affluent (??) areas, providing shelter to entrepreneurs. professionals, etc
Chain Migration
S
pillover
is common to both types of concentration, effects apply to traditional racial/ethnic enclaves
Socio-Economic Status
effects apply to resurgent ethnicity Neighborhoods.
Spatial-Social Polarization is an outcome
Heterolocalism
parallel: “applies to recent populations of shared [racial/]ethnic identity [in] … a dispersed pattern of residential location, … while maintaining strong social cohesion … despite the lack of propinquity” ( Zelinsky + Lee 1998, p. 293 )
Assimilation Class
Table 1: Class-Culture and Structure-Agency Essentials of Residential Patterning Frameworks
Addressed
As socio-economic status increases minorities choose better, more Caucasian neighborhoods
Culture
Addressed
English language ability improves, minorities become accultured towards middle-class, Caucasian values, and move accordingly
Structure
Addressed
1 Neighbors, societal attitudes, and real estate institutions create barriers to minorities
Stratification
Not Addressed Addressed
Racial/ethnic prejudice and real estate discrimination prevent minorities from residing in more Caucasian, better-off neighborhoods
Resurgent Ethnicity
Addressed
As socio-economic status increases minorities choose better neighborhoods
Addressed
In-group atttraction leads minorities to reside in proximity to others of the same racial/ethnic group
Addressed
Real estate agents, mortgage lenders, housing markets, and related institutions purposively act to segregate minorities
Not Addressed
Market-Led Pluralism
Addressed
As socio-economic status increases minorities choose better neighborhoods in accordance with personal preferences
Not Addressed Addressed
Real estate agents, mortgage lenders housing markets, the government, and related institutions purposively act to open markets and increase home ownership among minorities
Agency
Addressed
Individual choice seen as the operant force
Not Addressed Addressed
Individual choice and preferences are the operant force
Addressed
Individual choice and preferences are the operant force
Notes:
1. Structure is implicit, not explicit
Stepping Away; Adjusting Our Lenses
1. Increasing racial/ethnic profile of suburbs,
Ethnoburb
,
Safron Suburb
2. Discriminatory housing practices (Strat) greatly attenuated in impact 3. Inertia effects visible, but Stratification processes not strong in today’s residential sorting 4. Heterogeneous neighborhoods per se (Assim) not necessarily attractive + thus a marginal or irrelevant criteria in housing choice 5. Segmented Assimilation has currency but word “assimilation” carries baggage , and limits understanding current-day dynamics, especially because the process can be only partially assimilation 6. Resurgent Ethnicity more applicable current day , but how pervasive is in-group attraction as driver of racial/ethnic residential patterning??
7. Racial/ethnic clusters much as preference might occur from personal networks/contacts as (or both ) so assessing Resurgent Ethnicity is difficult 8. All frameworks miss “
Market Makers
” –
** MARKET-LED PLURALISM **
Market-Led Pluralism Components
--
Developers
-- unveil new urban spaces with culturally open communities
Lending Agencies
-- provide highly affordable mortgages to increasingly wide range of households
Government Policies
directed to affordable housing , home ownership as national priority, American dream commitment
Real Estate Brokers/Agents
-- discriminatory practices of past are illegal, profit reducing, and beside the point
Consumers
- preferences , tempered by affordability, is shared , not differentiated , along racial/ethnic lines
Communities
- own development agenda impacts housing markets
Facilitating these are – Information
that is pervasive + fluid (web, e-mail, cell phone)
Procedures
that are more systematized , automated , transparent
Class
-type elements, e.g.
affordability
and
amenities
(housing, Neighborhood), dominate
consumption equation
; not
Culture Well working market mechanisms
characterize new reality
Market-Led Pluralism Summary I
Represents
commercial perspective
on today’s housing market, Owning and renting Today’s markets – ago (Stratification)
open/dynamic
-- compared w/ 20+ years Transportation improvements, regional planning , spatially dispersed employment opportunities
city grip
– spatial spread/expansion --
loosened monocentric Developers respond
w/ enormous array of multi-household projects, often billed as “communities” - single-family dwellings, traditional condominiums , condominium arrangements of single-family dwellings , rental – projects aimed at full range of market properties in terms of income -- in the process, also opens market of former residences (
positive filtering
)
Empirical Evidence on
Builder Impact
--
NYT
reports
New River community
removed from central city, has in
Tampa
MSA,
exurban
, one county “38 percent Hispanic, 24 percent white, and 16 percent black.” More indirectly, considering
influential segment
of population who
continually relocate
(
relos
) in moving up corporate ladder,
NYT
notes “relos have
segregated
themselves, less by the old barriers of religion and national origin than by age , family status , education
especially
,
income
.” race , and,
Columbus
-- Table 2 highlights population characteristics of
six sub/ex-urban municipalities
+
one MSA county 1990
, largely through
construction
that experienced significant
growth since
of
new homes
+
communities
by
builders
(as on Figure 1) In
all seven
examples,
minority population growth
, ranging from
160 to 850 percent overall
.
between 1990 and 2000,
out-stripped growth
of
political unit
Table 2: Selected Governing Unit/Municipality Characteristics; 1990 and 2000 Total Population Percent Population African American Asian Hispanic Percent Minority (AA, A, H) Percent Minority Grow th Percent Population Grow th Foreign Born(pct) Median Household Income Median Home Value 1990 Dublin 16366 2000 31392 Grove City 1990 19661 2000 27075 1990 Hilliard 11579 2000 24230 New Albany 1990 1621 2000 3711 Pickerington 1990 5668 2000 9792 Reynoldsburg 1990 25748 2000 32069 Delaw are County 1990 2000 66929 109989 0.9
1.7
0.5
1.5
0.7
1.5
0.8
1.6
1.5
3.7
4.1
10.4
2.1
2.5
4.5
0.7
6.1
4.9
7.4
1.0
10.1
217.5
91.8
9.1
0.4
0.5
1.4
0.8
0.6
1.2
3.3
211.1
37.7
1.2
0.8
0.9
2.4
1.5
3.5
1.8
6.8
496.0
109.3
4.2
0.1
0.4
1.3
0.5
2.7
0.8
5.1
850.0
128.9
5.8
0.7
0.8
3.0
2.1
1.4
1.3
6.4
271.2
72.8
2.3
1.5
0.9
6.5
2.5
1.7
1.8
13.9
169.7
24.5
3.6
0.6
0.5
3.2
1.7
1.5
1.0
5.0
159.8
64.3
2.6
71996.0
91162.0 34350.0
52064 36415.0
69015.0
39333.0 102180.0 45862.0
63664.0 37169.0
51108.0 37896.0
67258.0
181600.0 243200.0 75200.0 120600 72800.0 157600.0 102400.0 452900.0 87300.0 137900.0 78700.0 123000.0 95900.0 190400.0
Source: 1990 and 2000 Census of the United States, American FactFinder
Role
of
Building sector
in Market-Led Pluralism context - Builders
target broad range of markets
,
rent
and
own
segments Building in
large quantities
,
communities
,
away
from
metro center
, reflecting
land availability
and
cost
Housing supply, from
entry-level to luxury
, across
full range of price-points
Reflects
market
and
anticipated demand
at any given level.
Amount of
construction
fueled by
enormous increase to own
, (recounted in
Lending Section
).
in people with
ability
Building is
race/ethnicity-blind
, but if
R/E addressed
explicitly through
advertising
, dimension in market, may be
welcoming gestures
, etc.
Creates
derivative supply conditions
--
“filtering up”
of
older houses
so segments
can improve living
Effect is
centrifugal loosening
of
residential mosaic
of
spatial patterns
representing
R/E aspects Class-
,
not culture-
considerations are
paramount
in this segment of M-LP
Market-Led Pluralism Summary II
Moving products facilitated by
burgeoning range of mortgage instruments + agencies
, especially in past decade.
Undergirding these are
government initiatives
carried out by FHA, FannieMae, FreddieMac, HUD, etc - loosened mortgage + loan programs -- pressed for racial/ethnic opportunities considerably in housing -- promoted American Dream to/for all -- supported outreach that procedures/possibilities educates public in home buying Exhortations
not merely sloganeering
or
vote-getting exercises
;
real and lots of $$$
; potential gains for business/NGOs enormous ; they respond accordingly “Today’s home purchase parallel to mindset in automobile buying
How much per month; current costs, future not factored in
“ ;
FannieMae
American Dream Commitment Program
in 2000 for “first time home buyers [so that] 18 million minority Americans can own or rent a home and underserved by the end of the decade” “with housing and lending partners, we launched a wide range of mortgage innovations and friendly home financing initiatives that brought low-cost , consumer to new people and places , and made it easier for minority families homeownership or and the working poor to get their foot in the door obtain safe , decent , affordable rental housing ” of An informant who
specializes in mortgages
noted “Consumers are much more educated today, at all SES levels. In 1990, when conventional mortgages were the norm, buyers often didn’t even know the difference between [or consequences of] a fixed or variable rate.
Today ... major developers and lenders make a point of informing and educating people ... Also, home ownership is perceived by the market as much more possible, whereas that wasn’t the case in 1990.” Same informant drew
parallel
today’s
housing market
and
automobiles
; “[just as] you can get into a new car for so much per month ; the pitch [in today’s housing market ] is [often] in terms of present or current costs , not future costs ”
Role
of
Lending Sector
in Market-Led Pluralism context --
Burgeoning increase housing accessibility
in
mortgage products
increases over last two decades,
rapidly expanding segment
of
pop Major impetus ownership
has been
federal government
commitment to
home + American Dream
, institutions such as Federal Housing Authority (
FHA
), Federal National Mortgage Association (
FannieMae
) Embraces
partnering
of
government incentives
;
private sector
+
private enterprise
, provides distinct
responded resoundingly Target
of home ownership programs is
lower income households
, where
race/ethnicity practices
also characteristics are
over represented
, but
R/E explicit concern
of programs +
Fair Housing Mortgage lending
also enters
rental unit market
designed to
increase R/E representation
in by
programs
+
policies quality rental units dispersed
throughout
metro area Spatial manifestation
of govt program related
highly uneven
, visually
correlates mortgages
in Columbus is with maps showing the
locations of R/E minorities + lower-priced new communities (building sector) Culture-
type considerations play
significant role
in this segment of M-L P
The Home Mortgage Market I
Traditionally dominated by
Savings-Loans
+
conventional mortgages
pct of house price (typically 20%) paid up front.
Changed dramatically
where in
1990s
,
opening home ownership
to enormously wider spectrum of the population 1.
Full service banks
+
specialized lending agencies
now
major players
2. Specialized lending agencies incl
brokers
who
shop
for mortgage
country wide
via web etc (e.g., California lender finances Columbus home buyer) 3.
Mortgages
immediately
factored
to
secondary market
comprised of large
nation-wide banks
FreddieMac) – (e.g., Wells Fargo) or
govt-created entities reduces/eliminates lender risk
, (e.g.,
increases capital turnover
,
stimulates market
4.
Mortgage products proliferated
--
FHA
+
VA
programs, available for decades; now Fed Nat’l Mortgage Assoc (FannieMae)
Community Home Buyer Programs
(offer “low or no down payment”),
buy-down mortgages
,
sub-prime lending
,
wrapping closing costs into mortgage
itself, etc 5.
Loosened credit
rating requirements; e.g.,
debt to income ratio
, typically 28/36 for conventional
flexibility
mtg-s but 29/41 for FHA mtg-s, + treated with
greater Impact – Enormously expands the pool of potential home buyers!!
The Home Mortgage Market II Major impetus
for proliferation is
government/government-related entities FannieMae -- American Dream Commitment Program
- for “first time home buyers, 18 million minority/underserved can own/rent a home by end of decade ” “we launched wide range of mortgage innovations and initiatives that brought low-cost, consumer-friendly home financing to new people ... made it easier for minority families/working poor to get foot in door of homeownership decent, affordable rental housing ” or ... safe,
US Department of Housing and Urban Development --
“HUD's mission is to increase homeownership , support community development , increase access to affordable housing free from discrimination”; claims that “ Homeownership is a National Priority ”
President Bush
million - wants to “ increase the minority homeowners by at least 5.5 before the end of decade” and proposed “ zero-down-payment initiative ”
Rental housing
programs – e.g.,
Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC)
authorizes “States ... to issue Federal tax credits for the acquisition, rehabilitation, new construction of affordable rental housing ... a project must have specific proportion of units set aside rents for lower income households on these units limited to 30 percent of qualifying income ” and
The Home Mortgage Market II – Continued
Exhortations
not merely sloganeering
exercises. or
vote-getting Huge amounts
of government
$$$
back up what is said Efforts are “
partnered
” with financial institutions, local governments, real estate professionals, housing lenders, builders, and nonprofit housing organizations Simply put –
Potential gains
for
NGOs
and been -- and are --
enormous business
entities have And they have
responded accordingly
.
The Home Mortgage Market III
--
Responses
1.
Developers
(M/I, Dominion, Maronda) created/integrated
financial arm
within Firm (M/I Financial, Dominion Financial, MFC Mortgage) 2. Numerous
free-standing mortgage agencies
, in addition to
full-service banks
– e.g., Broadview Mortgage w/ offices throughout Ohio 3. Typical
web site
outlines describes loan products home buying process (Home Buyers Guide, FAQs), (Your Loan Options, Calculators), facilitates application (Apply On Line, Pre-Qualify Now), encourages personal contact (Talk With Us Today, Free Consultation) 4.
Products
include Blemished Credit Options , down payment assistance , no minimum credit score to qualify , adjustable rate mortgages with a below-market fixed rate for three years 5.
Photos
each “ Home Loan Expert ” with homey, comforting
words
- “Call, e-mail, or visit Melanie ...[she] understands true meaning of customer service, Dedicated, ensures best mortgage products and rates” 6. Photo of
name
Melanie indicates she is
African American
; a
Spanish family
is common among staff; often home page has “
Se Habla Espanol
”
The Home Mortgage Market IV -- Consequences Bank VP
who specializes in mortgages noted that - 1. “
Consumers
much
more educated
today, at all SES levels . In 1990, when conventional mortgages were norm, buyers often didn’t even know difference between [or consequences of] fixed or variable rate. Today ... major developers and lenders make point of informing/educating
perceived
... Also,
home ownership
by market as much more possible ; wasn’t case in 1990 .” is 2. A parallel between
today’s housing market
can get into a new car and
automobiles
where “you for so much per month ; the pitch [in today’s housing market ] is [often] in terms of present or current costs , not future costs” 3.
Consequence
of focus
foreclosure increases
, on current costs especially in a and low/no down-payments down economy is when individuals lose jobs. Scenario (i) - interest rates rise for adjustable rate mortgages , which are less expensive initially . Scenario (ii) - year or so after purchase . Scenario (iii) new houses , when property taxes kick in - minimal/zero down-payment , home owner does not have cushion to cover real estate commissions and other selling costs .
4. In Franklin County OH
new foreclosure filings
.
from 1552 to 5007 , with especially dramatic jump between 1994 and 2001 rose (32%) between 2000 + 2001
Market-Led Pluralism Summary III
On demand side, Individuals
respond to opportunity
, within affordability constraint ; realize amenities such as owning home, space/parks, school district choice, proximity to work, etc Overall ,
Profit + consumption Market is open
are
pervasive
in equation, as always because discriminatory practices are illegal , less or un-profitable , confronted by households (
Stratification
)
Individual decisions
l ive with one’s own might be driven ( by desire to
(Segmented) Assimilation
assimilate , or
Resurgent Ethnicity
); some discriminatory practices (
Stratification
) continue In terms of
variance explained
, however,
Market-Led Pluralism
accounts for extraordinarily high proportion of the change in racial/ethnic residential patterns, at least since 1990
“Under some circumstances ... brokers are more interested in preventing ethnic tipping, and thereby preserving their white customer base , than they are in serving the interests of black or Hispanic customers.” (Yinger) “If many real estate agents have ‘ a smiling face’ but a bigoted spirit , they have been doing a mighty poor job of keeping blacks out of white neighborhoods” (Thernstrom + Thernstrom) When it comes to color, all he knows is that “ money is green ” (Agent) “Our team has added a Spanish-speaking agent , Spanish-speaking mortgage lender , title company invested in tapes to that speaks the language ... also I've bring back Spanish that I haven't used in 50 years ” Not simply benevolence or enlightenment law include six- + seven-figure .. - “potential sanctions damage awards under current for victims” (Farley-Squires) ”Realtors today aren’t as concerned about fair housing so much as mold and stuff [like that] ... issue isn’t so much whose selling and whose buying [as it is] disclosure, disclosure, disclosure .” “sure, [legal] sanctions may not get down to the level of someone like myself ... but even if they did, self interest … is a good consumer product … whole business geared to having real estate be a good thing -- Board of Realtors to big developers + banks on down [to local guy like me] - they’re all trying to create a quality [dependable, trustworthy] experience ”
Role
of
Selling
+
Renting
sector in Market-Led Pluralism --
Discriminatory practices continue
evidence (e.g.,
estate
+
“Audit Studies”
rental transactions
; have in housing market, but empirical ) indicates they constitute
small share dropped dramatically
of
real
over past
three decades
;
continue to drop
at
steady pace Home owner informants
and
other informants
gave
no hint
of
encountering such practices
, +
map patterns
, buttress conclusion that
selling + renting
practices are,
mostly
, distinctly
non-discriminatory Shift
reflects potential
sanctions
stemming from
government policy
and
legal rulings
; that
discriminatory practices not linked to income
were thirty years ago; that for many, maybe most,
focus
as they is taken up by other,
more pressing concerns
(e.g., mold, disclosures, inspections, termites) Related to latter is
crossing of two trends
enormous
decrease
in over past
racial/ethnic aversion
at
three decades personal
- +
institutional
level; an enormous
increase
in
consumer advocacy laws
,
practices
,
expectations Culture-
type considerations were
once paramount
in this
segment
of M-LP, but
class-
considerations
dominate today
Table 3: House and Neighborhood Preferences of Recent Movers, Columbus Ohio 1998 Mean Score Franklin County Standard Deviation Number Responding AA C AA C AA C In Choosing Your House and Neigborhood, How Important Were the Follow ing: Good Investment or Resale Value Economic Characteristics of the Neighborhood Racial Composition of the Neighborhood Saf ety of the Neighborhood Community Recreational Opportunities Schools: Reputation of Schools Quality of Academic Programs Quality of Athletic or Extracurricular Programs Racial Composition of the Student Body Economic Status of the Student Body Special Programs in Schools (e.g., gif ted, arts, sciences) Saf ety in Schools Quality of School District's Buildings and Facilities 5.91
5.48
4.32
6.07
4.38
5.52
5.85
5.14
4.00
4.06
4.73
5.42
5.16
5.92
5.49
3.54
6.04
4.04
5.67
5.94
5.14
3.68
3.91
4.92
5.71
5.42
1.42
1.66
1.88
1.24
1.93
1.85
2.00
2.19
2.28
2.36
2.45
2.15
2.16
1.19
1.28
1.81
1.06
1.85
1.78
1.68
1.95
1.89
1.79
1.99
1.76
1.77
56 52 44 54 40 44 34 35 28 34 33 38 38 871 831 743 849 742 705 641 621 587 597 606 627 624 Columbus Seven County MSA Mean Score Standard Deviation Number Responding AA C AA C AA C 5.85
5.35
3.90
5.98
4.25
5.94
5.39
3.46
5.98
3.83
5.33
5.71
5.15
3.95
4.15
4.74
5.44
5.26
5.57
5.84
5.05
3.63
3.88
4.78
5.66
5.32
Note s :
Respondents rated items on a Lickert Scale f rom 1 f or Not Very Important through 7 f or Very Important.
AA indicates Af rican American respondent; C indicates Caucasian respondent For all questions, there is
no
signif icant dif f erence betw een the Mean Scores of AA and C at the 95% conf idence level.
Question numbers in the original survey are indicated in the last column 1.36
1.56
1.81
1.26
1.99
1.21
1.35
1.83
1.15
1.89
1.99
1.79
1.97
2.27
2.15
2.11
1.93
1.92
1.78
1.71
1.95
1.93
1.86
2.00
1.77
1.77
142 130 98 133 99 1525 1458 1261 1485 1278 106 90 89 74 85 84 93 94 1248 1138 1104 1020 1048 1070 1113 1108 q56 q62 q63 q64 q70 q60 q73 q74 q75 q76 q77 q78 q79
Findings on Preferences --
For
all
thirteen Caucasians (
C
items ) and ,
no significant difference
African Americans (
AA
between ) for MSA or Franklin County (F)
Relative importance
of
items
among the set of thirteen.
Least important
and is
Racial Composition Racial Composition
of the
Neighborhood
of school’s
Student Body
, the
dimension
given
most attention
in
earlier
research Economic Status of Student Body also is relatively unimportant
Most important items Safety
are
Good Investment
or
Resale Value
, of
Neighborhood
,
Quality of Academic Programs Range of opinion
-- consistently more divergence among
African Americans
than
Caucasians
different ,
AA’s
are + while not statistically
noticeably more concerned with Racial Composition
of the Neighborhood and Student Body
From
New Home Consultant
for a builder - “ quality of life the color is the of the primary motivation neighbors for choosing a home, not ... Blacklick Ridge is pretty much a melting pot ... [and if there is a specific criteria] one thing people often say is ‘I want to live in a neighborhood where parents expect their children to attend college’ ” Thernstrom and Thernstrom - note that
middle-class African Americans
are as
prone to avoid poorer, higher crime, lower amenity neighborhoods as are Caucasians
; that
despite
the parallelism,
racism
is
attributed to Caucasians
but
not African Americans
, when in fact - “The views of middle-class blacks ... are not basically different from those of whites.”
Three-plus decades
consumption -- together with
policy shifts
, new
laws
, successful
legal challenges
- of racial/ethnic
dramatic effect mixing
in schools , work place , places of in terms of change in R/E aversions “
These scouts
, young people, are
black
,
green
,
red
, all kinds. They don't have the background of what ... occurred 20-30 years ago ... don't have a clue what the Vietnam War was about, the post war reaction of mid-70's, race riots ... moved forward [to the point that] they
don’t understand
characters such as
Archie Bunker
[of sit-com, All in the Family, fame] making fun [of prejudice] ...
I find them open to ideas
,
willing to work with each other
... everywhere I [ go [with the scouts and elsewhere]
I find diversity also
]
find it in the approach to
... its change ... and we ... the
overall market
.” Thernstrom and Thernstrom - “ ...
half a century ago
, most white Americans were
distinctly uneasy
... having black people ... in their neighborhoods ...
[but] by 1972
... the about number [with
this concern
] ... had
fallen so much disappeared from surveys
. It
wasn’t
an
issue
that the
question
anymore. ... Prejudice against sharing a neighborhood with African Americans has
declined so precipitously
that
whites today
next-door neighbor who ... is a
black
.” are ... far
more nervous religious fanatic than
about ... having a ... having one who is
Role
of
Consumer sector
in Market-Led Pluralism context --
Given available housing
(
Build
sector),
funds
for
buying or renting
(
Lend
( sector), that
discriminatory biases
are
not introduced by market agents Sell-Rent
sector),
racial/ethnic representation
in any given place will depend on, reflect,
consumer preferences
We argue --
Consumption equation
of seeking neighborhood + housing amenities, tempered by affordability,
is shared
,
not
differentiated by R/E Supported
reasoning
by
informant
data, survey of
1998 home buyers
, by circumstantial regarding marked
decline in R/E aversion
due to
mixing
in schools , work , places of consumption Sample of 1998 home buyers indicates, in choosing new home,
racial composition
of neighborhood + schools was
least important
preference items, for both
AA
’s
C
’s, and these
groups
did of 13 housing
not significantly differ
from one another in this preference, or others Calls into
question
focus , and current-day
relevance
dwells on
neighborhood composition
of earlier in terms of race
research
that
Class
-, not
culture
- considerations are
paramount
in this segment of M-LP
Role
of
Local Communities
in Market-Led Pluralism context --
Residential expansion
occurs within
context set by local communities
, which
impose own development agenda
, or lack there of, on markets
Driving agenda
(other) suburbs --
economic growth
,
enhancing/protecting tax base
,
creating/maintaining community style
,
pop size
,
avoiding strangle
by Agenda may
vary in breadth
, from
one/two
community sectors (e.g.,
housing
,
education
) to
full range
in
balanced-growth
manner
Tools
-- include
land annexation
(thru
utility provision
,
infrastructure
enhancement), local
government/administrative consolidation
,
zoning
,
architectural review
,
reconciling conflicting agendas
Important - established,
administrative capacity what kind
,
foresight
in planning process (
when
of process, etc),
community history
Within MSA, communities
vary greatly
in
planning endeavors
;
spatially differentiated outcomes
in cost, type, character of housing, related amenities.
Race/ethnicity
characteristics
impacted accordingly Employment
associated with community
affects pop composition Class-
,
not culture-
paramount, but
culture
motivation planning agenda that is
economically exclusive readily masked
by
“ Pro-development is very common among municipalities - most cities think that growth for growth’s sake is good - others, but not many, say ‘growth of what kind’ ” “some [leaders] are simply grasping others will say ‘no’ and for whatever they can get hold out for what they want ”.
; “ ... development drives growth , but the city/township [unit] determines the kind of growth standards , design review , using zoning , architectural development standards [etc]”
Mission Statement of Cleveland Heights Ohio
goal “To remain a leader in integration, assuring mutual respect among a racially and culturally diverse population”.
Employment Profile Effects
- Planned or Accidental --
S/W Columbus
--
Defense Construction Supply Center
(DCSC); well-paying, good-benefit jobs, more often custodial , office clerk , blue collar -type sectors; staffed by
(former) armed forces
, many
African American
or
other minorities /
Similarly,
Rickenbacker Port Authority
complex,
former military base
- Both
preceded Pickerington
+
Reynoldsburg development North Franklin County
and
beyond
is more high tech , new economy , white collar Cardinal Health positions, higher education Corporate Office, expectations / Compuserve-WorldCom (formerly), Limited Corporate Office, Online Computer Library Center ( OCLC ), Scott Lawn Care Wireless , Wendy’s Corporate Office, Corporate Office - Verizon Ohio Wesleyan , Otterbein , other institutions of higher learning plant accompanied by many -- major
Asian-based suppliers
US Honda
Table 4: MSA County Employment Profiles and Related Characteristics, Excluding Franklin Total Population Percent Employed In Management and prof essional occupations Service occupations Sales and of f ice occupations Farming, f ishing, f orestry occupations Construction, extraction, maintenance occupations Production, transportation, material moving occupations Delaw are County 58580 45.6
10.7
27.4
0.3
6.6
9.4
Fairf ield County 61476 Licking Madison Pickaw ay Union County County County County 72422 18205 22281 20826 32.2
13.4
28.7
0.3
10.2
15.3
29.2
14.5
27.7
0.4
10.5
17.7
25.9
14.9
25.7
0.4
11.3
21.7
26.2
14.2
25.7
0.5
11.9
21.4
27.1
13.8
26.3
0.8
8.7
23.4
Percent Population Af rican American Asian Hispanic Percent Minority (AA, A, H) Foreign Born(pct) Household Income Median Home Value Source: 2000 Census of the United States, American FactFinder 2.5
1.5
1.0
5.0
2.7
0.7
0.8
4.2
2.1
0.6
0.8
3.5
2.6
67258.0
1.3
47962.0
1.1
44124 190400.0 129500.0 110700 6.2
0.4
0.7
7.3
1.1
44212 104300 6.4
0.2
0.6
7.2
2.8
0.5
0.8
4.1
0.7
42832 1.0
51743 112400 128800
Table 4 - Delaware County
,
coherent forward-looking planning
, Relative
strength
in
Management + Professional Less
in
Service
,
Construction-Maintenance
,
Production Transportation
occupations
Highest Minority
household
income
and
home value
representation
5.0%
(
3rd highest
);
African American 2.5%
(
norm
)
Madison
+
Pickaway Counties Lowest
in
Management + Professional Highest
in
Construction-Maintenance
,
Service
,
Production-Transportation Income
and
home value
at
very bottom end Minority
representation,
7.3%
+
7.2 %
(
highest
);
African Americans 6.2%
+
6.4%
(
highest
)
Concluding Observations on Market-Led Pluralism
- M-LP directly reflects
workings
of today’s
housing market
within which race/ethnicity distinctions occur An account of
how things operate
,
not abstraction
, unlike many social science frameworks.
Our thinking
embraces
the
interest mechanisms as profit-motive
and related
self-
a
dominant force
in
R/E issues
; eg --
Discriminatory practices
, central to the stratification framework, proliferated and continued
only
so long as
financial gain
was there; in general,
no longer the case
As places of
work
and
multiE/R
,
fading
of
consumption
become increasingly
Caucasian ideal
such that
assimilation per se
becomes
marginal housing choice
,
heterogeneous
/
irrelevant
in neighborhoods not attractive in themselves , personal
utility functions shift
towards more
contemporary concerns
( schools , safety , investment value), and are
shared
,
not R/E distinct
In different venue - “the
ski industry
is ... realizing ... it has to
go multicultural to grow
,
How white do you think your resort can be in 35 years and still be in business?
” Wynter (2002) - “The much maligned
melting pot
time
whiteness itself
... is is finally being
bubbling again dissolved into
... this a
larger identity
that includes
blacks
,
Hispanics
, and
Asians
...
big business turned up that flame
…while
white privilege
obtains in America, it’s becoming
a luxury
that’s less and still
less fashionable
and more and
more costly to maintain
… I
can’t imagine corporate capital supporting
the
cost of whiteness past
its
economic retirement age
.
Never forget
: The underlying
motivation
for the
institution of political whiteness
has
always
been
economic first
and
social second
.
Hence no economic return, no more whiteness
.”