Transcript Document 7167298

Unit 3: The
Workings of the
Mind and Body
Ch 6: Body and Behavior
Ch 7: Altered States of
Consciousness
Ch 8: Sensation and Perception
Ch 6 – Body and Behavior
• The structure of • The nervous system controls your
the nervous system __________, movements, _______, +
behavior.
• It is divided into 2 parts:
• The central nervous system the ________ + the spinal cord
(nerves that run up + down the
length of the back + transmit
most _______ b/w body + brain)
• The peripheral nervous system –
the _____________________
that reach the other parts of
the body.
• Neurons • Messages to + from the brain travel along the nerves,
which are strings of long, _________ called neurons.
Chemical ______________ travel down the neurons.
• Transmission b/w neurons occurs when the cells are
____________ past a minimum point + emit a signal.
• They have 3 parts:
1. The cell body – contains the _____ + produces
the energy needed to ______ neuron activity.
2. Dendrites – Short, thin ______ that stick out
from the cell body + receive _________ from
other neurons + then send them to the cell
body.
3. The axon – a long fiber that carries the
impulses away from the cell body toward the
dendrites of the ______________. The axon
terminal buttons are the hair-like ends of the
axon.
• A white, _______________ called the
myelin sheath insulates + protects the
axon for some neurons.
• There is a _______ b/w the axon
terminals of one neuron + the dendrites
of another neuron. The space is known
as the synapse.
• A neuron transmits its impulses or
message to another neuron across the
synapse by ________________ called
neurotransmitters.
• There are many different types of
neurotransmitters – ex. ___________
block pain, __________ is involved in
learning + movement, etc…).
• 3 types of neurons based on functions:
1. Sensory (or afferent) neurons –
send messages from the sense
organs to the ________.
2. Motor (or efferent) neurons –
send signals from the brain to the
glands + __________.
3. Interneurons carry impulses b/w
_________ in the body.
• Voluntary +
involuntary
activities
• Some _____ your body makes in response to
impulses from the nerves are __________
(scratching your head, turning a page, etc…),
while others are ___________ (changes in
heartbeat, dilation of pupils, etc…).
• The somatic nervous system is the part
of the peripheral nervous system that
controls ____________________.
• The autonomic nervous system is the
part of the nervous system that
controls ________________. It has
2 parts:
• The sympathetic nervous system
prepares the body for dealing
w/ ____________ + strenuous
activity.
• The parasympathetic nervous
system works to __________
_________ + to help the body
recover from strenuous activity.
• Diagram of the
human nervous
system
______
Nervous
System
________
Nervous
System
______
__________
___________
Nervous System
(controls voluntary
actions)
__________
Nervous System
(controls involuntary
actions)
___________
Nervous System
(prepares your body for
stressful situations)
_____________
Nervous System
(calms your body down)
End Section 1
• The 3 main parts
of the brain
• The hindbrain – located near the
____________________ that is
involved in the basic processes of
life. It includes the:
• Cerebellum – helps control
posture, balance, + _______
__________.
• Medulla – helps control
__________, heart rate, +
many ________.
• Pons – functions as a ______
b/w the spinal cord + brain.
• The midbrain – small part of the
brain above the pons that
integrates ________________ +
relays it upwards.
• The forebrain – covers the brain’s central
core + is responsible for ______________
processes. It includes the:
• Thalamus – integrates all sensory
input except for ______.
• Hypothalamus – controls functions
like ______, thirst, sexual behavior, +
reactions to change in ___________.
• The outer layer of the forebrain is
the cerebral cortex. It gives us the
ability to learn + store complex +
_________________.
• The ____________ is the cerebrum.
• The limbic system regulates our
________ + motivations. It includes
the hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala
(controls _____________ like rage +
fear), + hippocampus (helps w/ the
formation of ________________).
• The lobes of the brain
• The cerebrum is made up of 2
__________ or sides (right + left).
The hemispheres are connected by a
______________ called the corpus
callosum. Each hemisphere has deep
grooves + is divided into 4 lobes
(regions):
• The occipital lobe is where
___________ are processed.
• The parietal lobe is concerned
w/ information from the
_____ from all over the body.
• The temporal lobe is
concerned w/ ________,
memory, _______, + speaking.
• The frontal lobe is concerned
w/ organization, planning, +
________________.
• The more _____________ the
movement, the more brain area
involved in its control.
• The hemispheres
of the brain
• The hemispheres of the brain are roughly
____________ + each has the same 4 lobes.
• Both sides complement + help each other.
The corpus callosum carries messages b/w
them to jointly control human functions.
• Each side controls the movements of the
_________________________.
• The left side specializes in:
• _______ (speaking, understanding
language, reading, + writing)
• ____________
• ________ (analyzing several pieces
that make up a whole)
• The right side specializes in:
• ___________ (understanding simple
sentences + words)
• _________
• _______ (combining parts that make
up a whole)
• Split brain
operations
• In a normal brain, the 2 sides
communicate through the ______
_________.
• Some people prone to severe
______ have surgery to sever the
corpus callosum so that the 2 sides
can no longer __________ to each
other (this lessens the seizures).
• These people now have ____
_____________ operating brains.
• Studies have shown that these
people’s abilities to complete
certain tasks depends on which
_______________. They may be
able to correctly identify an object
held in one hand but not the other
(see p. 164).
• Split brain patients remained
practically unchanged in
intelligence, ____________, +
emotions.
• This research proves that each
hemisphere is unique w/ ________
___________.
• How
• Recording _________________:
psychologists
• Electrodes are wires that can be inserted
study the
into the brain to record ___________
brain
activity. They are able to detect minute
electrical changes that occur when
_________________.
• An electroencephalograph (EEG), can look
at activity of whole areas of the brain.
• ____________ brain activity:
• Different parts of the brain can be
stimulated by the use of __________ to
determine what functions various parts of
the brain serve.
• Lets doctors know what parts of the brain
need to be ______________________.
• ________________:
• Scientists create lesions by cutting or
________ part of an animal’s brain. This
can also show what parts of the brain are
used for various activities. Lesions may
also occur due to an __________.
• Studying people involved in __________:
• Doctors can draw conclusions about
the brain based on what parts of the
brain were _______+ how the patient’s
__________ changed.
• (1848) __________ had an iron
pipe go through his skull during
an explosion. It damaged the
part of his brain which controls
the __________________. So
while Gage had been known for
the ability to plan and execute
those plans well, afterwards, he
wasn’t as much.
• Studying ________:
• Different types of scans (CAT, PET,
MRI) can show brain deterioration,
________, what parts of the brain are
used in different activities, etc…
End Section 2
• The
endocrine
glands
• The 2nd system for sending ________ to +
from the _______ (the 1st is the nervous
system).
• The endocrine system is a _________
________________ which uses hormones
to send messages through the bloodstream.
• Hormones are __________________ that
carry messages through the body in ____ +
other ___________ (see p. 172 diagram).
• Although hormones circulate
throughout the bloodstream, they are
only received at the _____________
that they influence.
• Hormones affect your body in various
ways – ex. growth of _______ + bone,
___________, physical differences
b/w boys + girls, influence _______ +
drives, etc…
• The pituitary gland is the _____________ of
the endocrine system + secretes a large # of
hormones.
• Many of these hormones control the
output of ________ by other endocrine
glands.
• It acts as the _______________.
• The thyroid gland produces the hormone
thyroxine which stimulates certain chemical
reactions. Too little thyroxine makes people
feel lazy + __________, but too much causes
people to lose weight + ________.
• When a person is angry or frightened the
adrenal glands become active + release
adrenaline + noradrenaline into the blood which
cause ___________ + breathing to
. Helps
generate ____________ to handle a difficult
situation.
• The sex glands – _____ in men (which produce
sperm + testosterone) + ________ in females
(which produce eggs + estrogen). Testosterone
helps determine the ___________ + estrogen
helps w/ the _________________.
• Hormones vs.
neurotransmitters
• Both work to affect the ________
_________.
• The difference is that a
neurotransmitter is released right
beside the _________________ +
a hormone is released into the blood
+ _________________________.
• The nervous system developed to
send rapid + ______________ w/in
thousandths of a second.
• The endocrine system developed to
send slow + ___________
_______________ which can take
minutes to reach their destination +
weeks or months to have their ____
________.
End Section 3
• Nature vs. nurture
(heredity vs.
environment)
•
•
•
There has long been a debate over
whether human behavior is
__________ (due to heredity) or
_______ (due to environment –
things like family, ________,
education, + individual
experiences).
Inherited + environmental factors
act together in _____________.
Heredity is the genetic
transmission of _____________
from parents to their kids.
• Genes are the basic units of
heredity. They are
reproduced + passed from
__________________.
• Twin studies
• One way to determine if a trait is
inherited is to study ___________.
• Identical twins develop from a
__________________ + share the
same genes.
• Fraternal twins develop from 2
fertilized eggs + so their genes are
no more similar than ___________.
• The ____________________ has
been studying identical twins who
were ______________. By looking
at their similarities, psychologists
can better understand what
behaviors must be caused by
heredity instead of ___________.
End Section 4
• Sleep
Ch 7 – Altered States of
Consciousness
• A state of ______________________,
characterized by certain _______ of brain
activity + inactivity.
• Consciousness is a state of ___________,
including a person’s feelings, sensations,
ideas, + ____________.
• People have altered states of consciousness,
or different ___________________.
• Until recently sleep was ______________.
W/ the invention of the EEG, psychologists
can now study people’s sleeping patterns
based on the _____________ of the brain.
• Why do
we sleep?
• Theories include:
• It’s a ___________ – helps us “charge
our batteries” + recover from ______.
• It’s a type of primitive __________ –
helps us conserve ________.
• It’s an _________________ – kept
primitive humans from wandering out
at night + being vulnerable to animals
w/ better ______________.
• It helps us clear our minds of ______
___________.
• We sleep to ________.
• Stages of sleep
• Each cycle last about __________.
• At no point does the brain become ________
__________.
• Beginning:
• Body temperature + pulse rate
.
• Breathing becomes _____________.
• Body may twitch + eyes roll.
• Stage I: Lasts about 10 min.
• Pulse slows more + _____________.
• Breathing becomes uneven.
• Stage II: Lasts about 30 min.
• Your eyes ________ from side to side.
• Stage III:
• _________________ b/w light + deep
sleep.
• Stage IV: Time varies inversely w/ ________.
• _____________ – difficult to awaken.
• People may sleep talk/walk or _______
_______.
• Stage V: ____________.
• REM sleep
• Characterized by ___________________.
• Breathing becomes __________.
• Levels of adrenal + ________________ in
blood
like you were involved in intensely
emotional or ________________ activity.
• Often face + fingers ________, but large
muscles in arms + legs are ___________.
• Brain waves resemble those of someone
who is _________.
• Lasts from ____ (early at night) to _____
(late at night).
• Seems to serve psychological functions like
building efficient learning + _________
____________.
• How much
sleep do we
need?
• Humans spend about _______________ asleep.
• Average amount needed varies based on age:
• __________: 16 hrs
• __________: spend as much as 10-11 hrs
• ______________: 8 hrs
• ______________: may only need 5 hrs
• Your circadian rhythm is a ____________ that
is genetically programmed to regulate
physiological responses w/in a _____________.
• Operates even when normal __________
cues are removed.
• ___________ for everyone.
• Regulates times of day when we feel
more/less _________.
• Blood pressure, heart rate, _________,
________________, sensory sharpness,
etc… all follow our circadian rhythm.
• Doesn’t necessarily match the
____________ (ex. jet lag).
• Sleep
disorders
• Insomnia – a prolonged + usually abnormal
inability to obtain ______________. Many
______ (depression, drugs, etc) + _____ (no
sleep, interrupted sleep, etc).
• Sleep apnea – sleeping disorder during which
the person has _________________ while
sleeping. Characterized by a specific type
of _________ – lasts 10-15 seconds + ends
suddenly. Person is actually _____ due to a
blocked _______________. Usually caused
by physical problems (ex: obesity, enlarged
tonsils etc). Affects _______ Americans –
usually the elderly.
• Narcolepsy – sleeping disorder
characterized by __________________ or
feeling very sleepy during the day. People
w/ it are constantly tired + may have unusual
sleep patterns + ____________________.
• Night terrors – sleep disruptions
involving _______, sweating, panic,
+ _________. Unlike nightmares,
people who suffer from terrors
wake up w/ __________________.
• Sleepwalking – many causes, usually
_________. Associated more w/
children than adults. It is ______
__________ to wake them.
• Sleep talking – _________, many
people sleep talk but don’t realize it.
Can __________________ or may
only speak a word or two.
• Dreams
• Most people can ___________ a few of their
dreams.
• 1st few dreams of the night are usually ______
thoughts left over from the day’s activities.
Later dreams become longer + more _______ +
dramatic.
• You usually remember the ________ you have.
• Most dreams are about more _____________
________ than the ones we remember.
• Content of dreams includes:
• ____________ activities.
• ____________ settings.
• Large % of emotion in dreams is ______.
• Dreams do not happen in a split second;
they correspond to a ______ time scale.
• Dream
interpretation
• Practice dates back to __________
• _____________ believed that dreams may
contain clues to thoughts the dreamer is
____________________ in his/her waking
hours + that they have _______________.
• He was the 1st psychologist to _____
_________ thoroughly.
• Many psychologists do ________ this view +
have different views about dream
interpretation:
• Some ____________.
• Others state that dreams are _____
+ mean nothing.
• Others state they are used so we can
recap what happened in our day +
________________.
• The final group says they are there to
help remove some ___________
___________.
• Day dreams
• Require a __________________ + involve
fantasizing while we are awake.
• Usually occurs when we’re in situations that
require _____________ or when we’re
________.
• Serves several useful purposes:
• Reminding or preparing us for events
________________.
• Improving __________.
• Some psychologists believe they allow
us to __________________.
End Section 1
• Hypnosis
• A state of altered consciousness resulting from
a narrowed ______________ + characterized
by heightened _____________ to changes in
behavior + thought.
• People who have been hypnotized can be made
conscious of things they’re usually ______ of +
unaware of things they’re usually _______ of.
• Hypnosis is NOT a ___________ – people who
are hypnotized become highly receptive +
responsive to ____________. They can focus
their attention on one tiny aspect of reality +
_________________.
• The hypnotist induces a trance by slowly
persuading a participant to ______ + to lose
interest in external ___________.
• The ________________ it takes to induce a
hypnotic state varies.
• Anyone can resist hypnosis by _____________
his/her mind to the hypnotist.
• Different
theories about
hypnosis
• Some think it isn’t a __________ of
consciousness, but the result of
____________.
• If people are given instructions
+ just try their ______, they’ll
be able to do anything
hypnotized people can.
• Some think there is something special
about the hypnotic state b/c people
don’t ____________ under hypnosis
+ are better at imagining +
___________ things.
• Others believe that hypnotized
people behave as they do b/c they’ve
________________ of a hypnotized
subject.
• Uses of
hypnosis
• ____________
• Posthypnotic suggestion – a suggestion
made during hypnosis that influences the
participant’s ___________________.
• Useful for quitting _________
_______ (ex: smoking, overeating,
etc)
• __________ – people have had ______
under hypnosis w/o anesthesia +
reported feeling no pain.
• Used by therapists to reveal problems +
______________.
• Biofeedback
• The process of learning to control ____
______ w/ the help of _________
monitoring the states to be controlled.
• Used to teach people to control a
variety of ___________________ (ex:
brain waves, heart rate, blood pressure,
sweat-gland activity, muscular control,
etc).
• Machines tell people about very subtle
______________ changes in the body.
People can then experiment w/
different thoughts + feelings while they
watch how each _________________.
• Meditation
•
•
•
•
The focusing of attention to clear one’s mind
+ __________________.
Been in practice _______________ for
thousands of years.
3 major approaches to meditation:
1. Transcendental meditation: involves
sitting w/ eyes closed for 15-20 min +
the __________________________.
2. Mindfulness meditation: involves
focusing on the _________________.
3. Breath meditation: involves
concentrating on one’s ____________.
Researchers mostly agree that people can
________ from the type of systematic
_________ that meditation provides.
• Has been found to help lower _____
______, heart rate, + respiration rate.
End Section 2
• Psychoactive • Interact w/ the central nervous system to
drugs
alter a person’s _______, perception, +
___________.
• Range from __________ like caffeine to
___________ like alcohol.
• Drugs are carried by the blood + taken up in
target tissues in parts of the body by
acting like _________________ + hooking
onto the ends of neurons + sending out
their own __________________. Ex. of
messages:
• Alcohol molecules may tell a nerve cell not
to fire. As more + more cells cease firing,
the alcohol user becomes slower + may lose
______________.
• LSD molecules may cause circuits in
different areas of the brain to start ____
_______ instead of separately, resulting in
hallucinations.
• Marijuana
• The dried leaves + flowers of Indian _____
(Cannabis sativa) that produce an altered
state of consciousness when smoked or
ingested (can be cooked + eaten).
• It’s legally + _________________ in some
societies where ________ isn’t.
• _______ vary from person to person + may
be pleasant or unpleasant.
• Not _________ addictive, but may become
____________ addictive.
• Cases have been reported in which it
appears to have helped bring on
______________________ in people who
were already unstable before they used it.
• Studies suggest that it is more damaging to
the lungs than ___________ use.
• Disrupts _________________, making it
difficult to carry out mental + physical
tasks.
• Adults using it score lower than nonusers on
academic ___________________.
• Hallucinogens
• Drugs that often produce ______________.
• Hallucinations are perceptions that have no direct
__________________.
• Can be caused by hypnosis, _________,
certain drugs, withdrawal from certain
drugs, psychological breakdown, lack of
sleep, ________, + periods of high emotion
or concentration.
• Hallucinogens (also called __________) create a
loss of contact w/ _______. They create a false
body image + dreamlike __________.
• Best known is LSD – one of the _____________
drugs known. A “trip” on LSD lasts from 6-14 hrs.
During this time, a person can experience any #
of perceptions, often intense + rapidly changing.
Sometimes it’s a _____________________. It
impairs thinking, even though users may feel they
are thinking more clearly than ever before. Panic
attacks can be a side effect + sometimes people
have ____________.
• Opiates
• Produce ___________, euphoria (a
pleasurable state somewhere b/w
wake + sleep), + ___________.
• Also called ___________.
• Includes _____, morphine, + heroin.
• Regular use can lead to physical
____________.
• An overdose results in a loss of
control of breathing – user then
dies from ________________.
• Alcohol
• The most widely ____________ mind-altering
substance in the US.
• Encouraged by advertisements, ________
____________, + traditions.
• Immediate effect is a general loosening of
_____________.
• Although it appears to be a stimulant, it’s
really a __________ that inhibits the brain’s
_________________.
• Effects depend on the amount + frequency of
drinking, the drinker’s body weight, + other
_____________ (other drugs in their system,
food consumption, etc).
• Effects include slurred speech, blurred vision,
+ ___________________ + memory.
• Permanent brain + liver damage + a change in
__________ can result from long-term heavy
use.
• Drug abuse
+ treatment
•
•
•
•
•
•
Most of us have taken a _____________ – like
caffeine or nicotine.
Drug abusers are people who regularly use illegal
drugs or _____________________________.
Common reasons for taking drugs include to
____________, to fit in w/ peers, to gain selfconfidence, to _____________, to relax, or to
feel good.
Risks include _________, death or injury from
overdose, damage to health, legal consequences,
+ ____________________.
__________ for drug abuse usually involves the
following 3 steps:
1. Must admit that he/she has a ________.
2. Must enter a treatment program +/or get
_________.
3. Must _________________.
Many addicts suffer a ______. Support groups
can help prevent this.
End Section 3
Ch 8 – Sensation and Perception
• Sensation
• Occurs anytime a ________ activates one of
your ________ (touch, sight, sound, taste, or
smell).
• A stimulus is any aspect of or _______ in the
environment to which an _______________.
• A perception is the organization of sensory
information into _____________________.
• Your success in __________________ from
your environment, interpreting this
information, + acting on it depends on its
being ___________________________.
• Psychophysics
• Study of relationships b/w ________________
+ the ________________ that cause them.
• The absolute threshold is the ____________ of
a stimulus required to produce a __________.
• The level of stimulus that produces a
positive response of detection ___% of the
time.
• Absolute threshold for humans is:
• Seeing a candle flame 30 mi away on a clear
night.
• Hearing a watch ticking 20 ft away.
• Tasting 1 teaspoon of sugar dissolved in 2 gal
of water.
• Smelling 1 drop of perfume in a 3 room house.
• Feeling a bee’s wing falling 1 cm onto your
cheek.
• The difference threshold is the ____________
in a physical ________ that can be detected b/w
2 stimuli.
• Weber’s Law states that the larger or stronger
a ________, the larger the change required for a
person to ______ that anything has happened
to it.
• Psychologists focus on people’s _______ to
changes in stimuli b/c the senses are tuned
to ________.
• Senses are ____________ to or
+ to new events rather than ongoing,
unchanging stimulation.
• This is b/c our senses _______.
• There’s _______________ b/w stimuli you
can + can’t perceive.
• Studies the relations b/w ________, sensitivity, +
• Signaldecision making in detecting the presence or
Detection
absence of a __________.
Theory
• Detection thresholds involve recognizing
some stimulus against a background of
________________.
• Varying factors can affect our ability to
___________________, such as motivation,
quantity + quality of competing stimuli,
amount of time spent __________ on a task,
etc…
• So there is _________ true absolute
threshold for detecting a stimulus.
• Psychologists have identified 2 ways of processing
stimuli (or “________”):
• Preattentive process is a method for
extracting information _____________ +
simultaneously when presented w/ stimuli.
• Attentive process is a procedure that
considers only _______________________
presented at a time.
End Section 1
• Vision
• _____________ of all the senses – shows how
important we think it is.
• Provides us w/ information about our
environment – ___, shapes, locations, textures,
colors, + ___________.
• _____occurs when light enters the eye through
the pupil (the opening in the ___ that regulates
the amount of ____ entering the eye) + reaches
the lens (a ______ structure that focuses light
on the retina). Once the lens has focused light
on the retina (the innermost coating of the
back of the eye, containing the light-sensitive
receptor cells – __________) the rods + cones
w/in it change light energy into __________
______ which then travel along the optic nerve
(nerve that carries _______ from the retina to
the brain) to the brain where they are routed
to the _______________.
• Light
• Light is a form of electromagnetic ______
(so are radio waves, __________, infrared
radiation, UV rays, X-rays, etc…)
• Visible light can be observed w/ a ______.
Passing sunlight through a prism breaks the
light into a ___________ of colors each
comprised of light of different
___________. Prisms transmit light while
other objects _____________ light. The
object’s color depends, in part, on the light
that ___________________.
• Ex. An apple ________ red light +
_________ all others.
• Color
deficiency
• The _____ in our retinas require more light
than _____ + work best in daylight. Only
cones are sensitive to color. Rods work
best at ______ + only see black + white.
• So when some or all of a person’s cones
don’t function properly, he/she is _____________. Most color-deficient people see
___________ (Ex. They may have trouble
distinguishing b/w red + green OR blue +
yellow). Few people are totally _________.
Color deficiency affects about ___% of
American women + ___% of men. It’s a
hereditary condition carried on the ____
______________.
• Binocular • B/c we have 2 eyes, the visual system receives 2
images. The process of ____________________
fusion
received from the 2 eyes into a single, _________
is called binocular fusion.
• There is also a difference b/w the images on the
retinas ____________________ called retinal
disparity.
• Try holding your pen or pencil in front of your
face. Close your left eye + look at it only w/ your
right. Now quickly close your right eye and look
at it only w/ your left. Do this several times.
• Retinal disparity is essential to our sense of _____
__________. A large amount of retinal disparity
tells the brain the object is ________ + a small
amount tells it it’s _____________.
• If your eyeballs are a little too long, you are
_________ (can see objects nearby, but far away
objects appear blurry). If they’re too short you
are ___________ (can see objects far away, but
objects nearby appear blurry).
• Hearing
• Depends on __________________, called sound
waves.
• Hearing occurs when __________ pass from the
air through various bones until they reach the
inner ear, which contains tiny ___________ that
move back + forth which change sound vibrations
into _______________ that travel through the
auditory nerve (the nerve that carries impulses
from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the
____________________) to the brain.
• Loudness is determined by the ___________, or
height, of sound waves.
• Pitch depends on sound wave _________, or the
rate of vibrations.
• Sources of sounds can be located when your ears
____________. Sounds that reach an ear a
fraction of a second _____ + are slightly _____,
tell you what direction it came from.
• The pathway
of sound
• The ear is designed to _____ sound waves.
The outer ear receives sound waves + the
earflap directs the sounds down a short
tube called the _______________. The
vibration of air (the sound wave) causes air
in the auditory canal to vibrate which
causes the ________ to vibrate.
• The middle ear is an _____________ w/ 3
tiny bones that vibrate when the eardrum
vibrates + push against the cochlea.
• The cochlea makes up the ________. It’s a
bony tube that contains fluids + ________.
The pressure against it makes the ______
inside it move. The tiny hairs inside it pick
up the motion. The hairs are attached to
sensory cells which turn the sound
vibrations into ______________ which are
carried by the auditory nerve to the brain.
• Deafness
• There are 2 types of deafness:
• __________ deafness occurs when
anything hinders _______________
through the outer or middle ear.
• These people can usually be
_______ w/ a hearing aid.
• ___________ deafness occurs from
______ to the cochlea, the hair cells,
or the auditory neurons.
• These people _____________
w/ a normal hearing aid. They
require special hearing aids
that must be _______ in their
ear.
• Balance
• Our sense of _______ is regulated
by the vestibular system (the 3
semicircular canals that provide the
sense of balance, located in the
________ + connected to the brain
by a nerve).
• The ________ for vestibular
responses include movements like
______, falling, + tilting your body
or head.
• ____________ can result in
dizziness or motion sickness.
• Necessary to be able to walk or
stand w/o ___________.
• Smell + taste
• Known as ____________ b/c their receptors
are sensitive to chemical _________ rather
than light energy or sound ______.
• In order to smell something, the appropriate
______________ must come into contact w/
the smell receptors in your nose. They enter
your nose in ________ that reach a special
membrane in the upper part of the nasal
passages on which the smell receptors are
located. These receptors ______________
about smells from the nose to the brain
through the olfactory nerve.
• In order to taste something appropriate ____
__________ must stimulate receptors in the
taste buds on your tongue. Taste information
is relayed to the brain along w/ data about
_________ + temperature.
• There are 4 primary sensory experiences that
make up taste: _____, salty, bitter, + _____.
____________ also influences taste.
• Much of what is referred to as taste is
actually produced by the sense of _______.
• Skin senses
• ___________ in the skin are responsible for
providing the brain w/ at least 4 kinds of
information about the environment: ________,
warmth, cold, + ______.
• Sensitivity to pressure ______ from place to
place in the skin (ex. Fingertips are more
sensitive than the middle of the back).
• Pain makes it possible for you to ________
_________ to your body – it’s an emergency
warning system.
• Unlike most other senses, pain results from
many ______________ (ex. Intense pressure,
bright lights, loud noises, intense heat, etc…).
• There are 2 types of pain sensations: _______,
localized pain you feel immediately + _______,
generalized pain you may feel later.
• The Gate Control Theory of Pain states that we
can _____ some pains by shifting our attention
away from the pain impulses or by sending
other signals to _________ w/ the pain signals
(ex. Rubbing a stubbed toe).
• Body senses • Kinesthesis is the sense of movement +
_______________.
• It cooperates w/ the vestibular +
visual senses to maintain posture +
_________.
• It comes from receptors in + near the
________, tendons, + joints.
• When any movement occurs,
these receptors ___________
to the brain.
• W/o these sensations, your
movements would be jerky +
______________.
End Section 2
• Perception
• Occurs when the brain receives
information from the senses + organizes
it into _____________________.
• Happens ____________.
• The brain makes sense of the world by
creating ______________ out of bits +
pieces of information in the environment.
• Each whole that is organized by
the brain is called a gestalt (the
experience that comes from
organizing bits + pieces of
____________ into meaningful
wholes).
• Principles the brain uses in constructing
perceptions:
• __________
• __________
• __________
• __________
• __________ (or symmetry)
• Diagram p.224
• Figureground
perception
• Ability to discriminate b/w a figure + its
___________.
• The figure is whatever you are _________
– it can change in any given scene.
• Important b/c it shows we can see a single
_______ in more than one way + aren’t just
______________ of stimuli.
• Applies to ______ as well, such as focusing
on one __________ in a crowded room or a
particular part of a song.
• Perceptual
inference
• We often have perceptions that aren’t
based entirely on ________________
information.
• We ___________ based on past
experience + are probably born w/
some of our ________.
• You hear a meow + assume
it’s a cat.
• You see a road go up a hill +
assume it doesn’t drop off
at the top.
• Largely _______ + __________.
• Learning to
perceive
• Perceiving is something that we ____ to do.
• _______________ in one’s environment is
important for accurate perception.
• Learning to perceive is influenced by our
needs, beliefs, + ____________.
• We are more likely to see something we
________________.
• What we identify as truth may be twisted +
reconstructed to fit our own _______
_________.
• _______________ influence what we see.
• Read p.236-7 “To See and Not See”
• Subliminal
perception
• Subliminal messages are brief auditory or
visual messages presented below the
_________________ so that there is less
than a _____% chance that they will be
perceived.
• The idea is to get people to do something
w/o __________ of why – it affects their
_________________ only.
• __________tried this in the 1950s. When
the public found out there was a large
outcry. Although its success was never
really proven, laws were passed _________
subliminal advertising.
• Depth
• Ability to recognize _______ + 3-dimensionality.
perception • Develops in ________ – tests show that infants
placed on a table usually won’t crawl over the
________.
• __________ depth cues help perceive distance +
depth. They can be used w/ a single eye:
• ______ (bigger is nearer)
• ____________ (objects farther away are
higher on your plain of view)
• _____________ – overlapping of images
(objects we can see entirely are closer than
one that is partially blocked)
• _______________ (brightly lit objects
appear closer)
• ______________ gradient (the farther
away an object is, the less detail we see)
• Motion parallax – the apparent
_________ of objects that occurs when
you move your head or are walking
(closer objects appear to move more)
• _____________ (parallel lines seem to
converge in the distance)
• ______________ – ex. When riding in a
car looking at distant objects, nearby
objects appear seem to be moving in the
opposite direction. But when looking at
nearby objects, distant objects appear
to be moving in the same direction.
• ________ depth cues depend on the movement of
both eyes:
• __________ (your eyes turn inward to look
at nearby objects)
• Look at a friend's eyes as you
hold your finger in front of him or
her and move it towards the nose.
You will see the eyes converge.
• _______________ - difference b/w the
images on the retinas stimulating each eye
(A large amount of retinal disparity tells the
brain the object is __________)
• Remember: Try holding your pen or
pencil in front of your face. Close
your left eye + look at it only w/ your
right. Now quickly close your right
eye and look at it only w/ your left.
Do this several times.
• Constancy
• The tendency to perceive certain objects in
the _______ regardless of changing angle,
distance, or lighting.
• Illusions
• Perceptions that misrepresent physical
stimuli (____________________).
• Created when perceptual cues are
_________, so our brains can’t correctly
interpret space, size +/or ____________.
• Extrasensory
perception
(ESP)
•
•
•
•
The ability to ______________ by some means
other than the _______________.
Widely debated – most scientists ___________
it.
4 types:
1. ____________ – perceiving objects or
information w/o sensory input.
2. __________ – reading someone’s mind or
transferring one’s thoughts.
3. Psychokinesis – moving objects through
__________________.
4. ____________ – knowing something will
happen before it does.
Why do so many people accept it?
• B/c they may have a ____________ that
some unlikely event will occur + it does.
They remember that event + forget all of
the premonitions that ______________.
End Section 3