Management 386 Systems & Information Management The Art of Requirements Gathering Walter L.
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Management 386 Systems & Information Management The Art of Requirements Gathering
Walter L. Turner April 3, 2001
Giving It Your All
Source: Seven Years of Highly Defective People, Scott Adams 5/1/2020 Management-386 2
Requirements
• • • • • •
What is a requirement?
What are requirements used for?
Why is it important that requirements be defined accurately?
What is a Systems Analyst?
What is the role of a Systems Analyst?
How does analysis differ from design?
5/1/2020 Management-386 3
Fact Finding
•
Introduction
–
Fact-finding
is the formal process of using research, interviews, questionnaires, sampling, and other techniques to collect information about systems, requirements, and preferences. It is also called
information gathering
or
data collection
.
– Tools, such as data and process models, document facts, and conclusions are drawn from facts. Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 4
Fact Finding
•
Introduction (Cont’d)
– If you can't collect the facts, you can't use the tools. – Fact-finding skills must be learned and practiced.
– Systems analysts need an organized method of collecting facts.
• They especially need to develop a detective mentality to be able to discern relevant facts! Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 5
Fact Finding
•
When do you perform fact-finding?
– Fact-finding is most crucial to the systems planning and systems analysis phases. • It is during these phases that the analyst learns about the vocabulary, problems, opportunities, constraints, requirements, and priorities of a business and a system. – During systems design, fact-finding becomes technical as the analyst attempts to learn more about the technology selected for the new Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley system. 5/1/2020 Management-386 6
Fact Finding
•
Strategy
– To waste your end-users' time is to waste your company's money.
• To make the most of the time that you spend with end-users, don't jump right into interviews. • First collect all the facts you can by using other methods.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 7
Fact Finding - Requirements Gathering
•
Seven common fact-finding techniques
– Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and databases.
– Research and Internet site visits.
– Observation of the work environment.
– Questionnaires.
– Interviews.
– Rapid Application Development (RAD). – Joint Application Development (JAD).
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 8
Sampling
•
From Existing Documentation
– The first document the analyst should seek out is the organizational chart. – Trace the history that led to the project. • To accomplish this, the analyst may want to collect and review documents that describe the problem. These include: – Interoffice memoranda, studies, minutes, suggestion box notes, customer complaints, and reports that document the problem area.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 9
Sampling
•
From Existing Documentation (Cont’d)
• Collect and review documents (cont’d) – Accounting records, performance reviews, work measurement reviews, and other scheduled operating reports.
– Information systems project requests – past and present.
• There are usually documents that describe the business function being studied or designed. Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley These documents may include: – The company's mission statement and strategic plan.
– Formal objectives for the organization sub-units being studied.
5/1/2020 Management-386 10
Sampling
•
From Existing Documentation (Cont’d)
• Documents that Descibe Business Functions (Cont’d) – Policy manuals that may place constraints on any proposed system.
– Standard operating procedures (SOPs), job outlines, or task instructions for specific day-to-day operations.
– Completed forms that represent actual transactions at various points in the processing cycle.
– Samples of manual and computerized databases.
– Samples of manual and computerized screens and reports.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 11
Sampling
•
From Existing Documentation (Cont’d)
• Check for documentation of previous system studies and designs performed by systems analysts and consultants. This documentation may include: – Various types of flowcharts and diagrams.
– Project dictionaries or repositories – Design documentation, such as inputs, outputs, and databases.
– Program documentation.
– Computer operations manuals and training manuals.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 12
Sampling
•
From Existing Documentation (Cont’d)
– All documentation collected should be analyzed to determine currency of the info. – Don't discard outdated documentation. • Just keep in mind that additional fact-finding will be needed to verify or update the facts collected. – As you review existing documents, take notes, draw pictures, and use systems analysis and design tools to model what you are learning or proposing for the system.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 13
Sampling
•
Document and File Sampling
– Because it would be impractical to study every occurrence of every form, analysts normally use
sampling
techniques to get a large enough cross section to determine what can happen in the system.
•
Sampling
is the process of collecting sample documents, forms, and records.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 14
Research and Internet Site Visits
•
Introduction
– A second fact-finding technique is to thoroughly research the application and problem. • Computer trade journals and reference books are a good source of information. • Exploring the
Internet
via your personal computer can provide you with a immeasurable amounts of information. • Corporations use Internet technology as an Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley effective means of communicating with their employees.
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Research and Internet Site Visits
•
Introduction (Cont’d)
– A similar type of research involves visiting other companies or departments that have addressed similar problems. – Memberships in professional societies such as Data Processing Management Association (now known as AITP), or Association For Information Systems (AIS) among others can provide a network of useful contacts.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 16
Observation of the Work Environment
•
Introduction
– Observation is one of the most effective data collection techniques for obtaining an understanding of a system.
•
Observation
is a fact-finding technique wherein the systems analyst either participates in or watches a person perform activities to learn about the system.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 17
Observation of the Work Environment
•
Introduction (Cont’d)
– This technique is often used when the validity of data collected through other methods is in question or when the complexity of certain aspects of the system prevents a clear explanation by the end-users.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 18
Observation of the Work Environment
•
Collecting Facts by Observing People at Work
– Observation Advantages: • Data gathered by observation can be highly reliable.
• The systems analyst is able to see exactly what is being done. • Observation is relatively inexpensive compared with other fact-finding techniques. • Observation allows the systems analyst to do work measurements.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 19
Observation of the Work Environment
•
Collecting Facts (Cont’d)
– Observation Disadvantages: • Because people usually feel uncomfortable when being watched, they may unwittingly perform differently when being observed. • The work being observed may not involve the level of difficulty or volume normally experienced during that time period.
• Some systems activities may take place at odd times, causing a scheduling inconvenience for the Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley systems analyst.
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Observation of the Work Environment
•
Collecting Facts (Cont’d)
– Observation Disadvantages: (continued) • The tasks being observed are subject to various types of interruptions.
• Tasks may not always be performed in the manner in which they are observed by the systems analyst. • If people have been performing tasks in a manner that violates standard operating procedures, they may temporarily perform their jobs correctly while Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 you are observing them. – In other words, people may let you see what they want you to see.
Management-386 21
Observation of the Work Environment
•
Guidelines for Observation
– Observation should first be conducted when the work load is normal. • Afterward, observations can be made during peak periods to gather information for measuring the effects caused by the increased volume. • The systems analyst might also obtain samples of documents or forms that will be used by those being observed. Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 22
Observation of the Work Environment
•
Guidelines for Observation (Cont’d)
• Work
sampling
is a fact-finding technique that involves a large number of observations taken at random intervals.
– This technique is less threatening to the people being observed because the observation period is not continuous. – When using work sampling, you need to predefine the operations of the job to be observed, then calculate a sample size as you did for document and file sampling. – Make that many random observations, being careful to observe activities at different times of the day. Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 23
Observation of the Work Environment
•
Guidelines for Observation (Cont’d)
•
Word Sampling (cont’d)
– By counting the number of occurrences of each operation during the observations, you will get a feel for how employees spend their days.
– With proper planning completed, the actual observation can be done. • Effective observation is difficult to carry out however, the following guidelines may help you Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley develop your observation skills: – Determine the who, what, where, when, why, and how of the observation.
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Observation of the Work Environment
•
Guidelines for Observation (Cont’d)
• Observation Guidelines (cont’d) – Obtain permission from appropriate supervisors or managers.
– Inform those who will be observed of the purpose of the observation.
– Keep a low profile.
– Take notes during or immediately following the observation.
– Review observation notes with appropriate individuals.
– Don't interrupt the individuals at work.
– Don't focus heavily on trivial activities.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley – Don't make assumptions.
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Questionnaires
•
Introduction
–
Questionnaires
are special-purpose documents that allows the analyst to collect information and opinions from respondents.
• The document can be mass produced and distributed to respondents, who can then complete the questionnaire on their own time. – Questionnaires allow the analyst to collect facts from a large number of people while maintaining uniform responses. Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 26
Questionnaires
•
Collecting Facts by Using Questionnaires
– Advantages: • Most questionnaires can be answered quickly. – People can complete and return questionnaires at their convenience.
• Questionnaires provide a relatively inexpensive means for gathering data from a large number of individuals.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 27
Questionnaires
•
Collecting Facts by Using Questionnaires
– Advantages (Cont’d): • Questionnaires allow individuals to maintain anonymity.
– Individuals are more likely to provide the real facts, rather than telling you what they think their boss would want them to.
• Responses can be tabulated and analyzed quickly.
– Disadvantages: • The number of respondents is often low.
• There's no guarantee that an individual will answer or expand Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley on all of the questions.
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Questionnaires
•
Collecting Facts (Cont’d)
– Disadvantages (Cont’d): • Questionnaires tend to be inflexible. – There's no opportunity for the systems analyst to obtain voluntary information from individuals or to reword questions that may have been misinterpreted.
• It's not possible for the systems analyst to observe and analyze the respondent's body language.
• There is no immediate opportunity to clarify a vague or incomplete answer to any question.
• Good questionnaires are difficult to prepare.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 29
Questionnaires
•
Types of Questionnaires(free & fixed formats)
– Free-format questionnaires: •
Free-format questionnaires
offer the respondent greater latitude in the answer. A question is asked, and the respondent records the answer in the space provided after the question.
• The analyst should phrase the questions in simple sentences and not use words -- such as
good
-- that can be interpreted differently by different respondents. • The analyst should ask questions that can be Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley answered with three or fewer sentences.
5/1/2020 Management-386 30
Questionnaires
•
Types of Questionnaires (Cont’d)
– Fixed-format questionnaires: •
Fixed-format questionnaires
contain questions that require specific responses from individuals.
– Given any question, the respondent must choose from the available answers. – This makes the results much easier to tabulate. – On the other hand, the respondent cannot provide additional information that might prove valuable. • Example: Multiple Choice, True/False, Rating •
Design Questionnaire 1st
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 31
Interviews
•
Introduction
– The personal interview is generally recognized as the most important and most often used fact-finding technique.
•
Interviews
are a fact-finding technique whereby the systems analysts collects information from individuals face to face.
– There are two roles assumed in an interview. 1 The systems analyst is the
interviewer
, responsible for organizing and conducting the Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley interview. 5/1/2020 Management-386 32
Interviews
•
Introduction
– Two roles (Cont’d) 2 The system user, system owner, or adviser is the
interviewee
, who is asked to respond to a series of questions. Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 33
•
Question Types
Interviews
Source: Systems Analysis & Design, Dennis & Wixom,p115 5/1/2020 Management-386 34
Interviews
•
Question Approaches
Source: Systems Analysis & Design, Dennis & Wixom,p116 5/1/2020 Management-386 35
Interviews
•
Guidelines for Interviews
Source: Modern Systems Analysis & Design, Hoffer, George, and Valacich, p244 5/1/2020 Management-386 36
Interviews
•
Interview Outline (Cont’d)
Source: Modern Systems Analysis & Design, Hoffer, George, and Valacich, p245 5/1/2020 Management-386 37
Interviews
•
Collecting Facts by Interviewing
– Advantages: • Interviews give the analyst an opportunity to motivate the interviewee to respond freely and openly to questions.
• Interviews allow the systems analyst to probe for more feedback from the interviewee.
• Interviews permit the systems analyst to adapt or reword questions for each individual.
• Interviews give the analyst an opportunity to Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley observe the interviewee's nonverbal communication.
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Interviews
•
Collecting Facts by Interviewing (Cont’d)
– Disadvantages: • Interviewing is a very time-consuming, and therefore costly, fact-finding approach.
• Success of interviews is highly dependent on the systems analyst's human relations skills.
• Interviewing may be impractical due to the location of interviewees.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 39
Interviews
•
Interview Types and Techniques
– 2 types: unstructured and structured.
1 Unstructured interviews: Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley –
Unstructured interviews
are conducted with only a general goal or subject in mind and with few, if any, specific questions. The interviewer counts on the interviewee to provide a framework and direct the conversation.
– This type of interview frequently gets off track, and the analyst must be prepared to redirect the interview back to the main goal or subject. » For this reason, unstructured interviews don't usually work well for systems analysis and design.
5/1/2020 Management-386 40
Interviews
•
Interview Types and Techniques (Cont’d)
2 Structured interviews: Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley – In
structured interviews
the interviewer has a specific set of questions to ask of the interviewee.
– Depending on the interviewee's responses, the interviewer will direct additional questions to obtain clarification or amplification. – Some of these questions may be planned and others spontaneous. –
Open-ended questions
allow the interviewee to respond in any way that seems appropriate. –
Closed-ended questions
restrict answers to either specific choices or short, direct responses. 5/1/2020 Management-386 41
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview
– Select Interviewees: • You should interview the end-users of the information system you are studying. – A formal organizational chart will help you identify these individuals and their responsibilities. – You should attempt to learn as much as possible about each individual prior to the interview. – Attempt to learn what their strengths, fears, biases, and motivations might be. – The interview can then be geared to take the characteristics of the individual into account.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 42
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
– Select Interviewees (Cont’d): • Always make an appointment with the interviewee. – Never just drop in. – Limit the appointment to somewhere between a half hour and an hour. – The higher the management level of the interviewee, the less time you should schedule. – If the interviewee is a clerical, service, or blue-collar worker, get their supervisor's permission before scheduling the interview. Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 43
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
– Select Interviewees (Cont’d): • Make appointment (cont’d) – Be certain that the location you want for the interview will be available during the time the interview is scheduled. – Never conduct an interview in the presence of your officemates or the interviewee's peers.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 44
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
– Prepare for the Interview: • Preparation is the key to a successful interview. • To ensure that all pertinent aspects of the subject are covered, the analyst should prepare an interview guide.
– An
interview guide
is a checklist of specific questions the interviewer will ask the interviewee.
• The interview guide may also contain follow-up questions that will only be asked if the answers to Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley other questions warrant the additional answers. 5/1/2020 Management-386 45
Interviews
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 INTERVIEWEE: Jeff Bentley, Accounts Receivable Manager DATE: Tuesday, March 23, 1993 TIME: 1:30 P.M.
PLACE: Room 223, Admin. Bldg.
SUBJECT: Current Credit-Checking Policy 1 to 2 min.
Open the interview.
Introduce ourselves.
Thank Mr. Bentley for his valuable time.
State the purpose of the interview -- to obtain an understanding of the existing credit-checking policies.
5 min.
What conditions determine whether a customer's order is approved for credit?
5 min.
What are the possible decisions or actions that might be taken once these conditions have been evaluated?
3 min.
Management-386 46
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020
Interviews
How are customers notified when credit is not approved for their order?
1 min.
After a new order is approved for credit and placed in the file containing orders that can be filled, a customer might request that a modification be made to the order. Would the order have to go through credit approval again if the new total order cost exceeds the original cost?
1 min.
Who are the individuals that perform the credit checks?
1 to 3 min.
May I have permission to talk to those individuals to learn specifically how they carry out the credit-checking process?
If so: When would be an appropriate time to meet with each of them?
1 min.
Conclude the interview: Thank Mr. Bentley for his cooperation and assure him that he will be receiving a copy of what transpired during the interview.
21 minutes +9 minutes for follow-up questions and redirection 30 minutes allotted for interview (1:30 p.m. - 2:00 p.m.) Management-386 47
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
– Prepare for the Interview: Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 • Avoid the following types of questions: –
Loaded questions
, such as ``Do we have to have both of these columns on the report?'' The question conveys the interviewee's personal opinion on the issue.
–
Leading questions
, such as ``You're not going to use this OPERATOR CODE, are you?'' The question leads the interviewee to respond, ``No, of course not,'' regardless of actual opinion.
–
Biased questions
, such as ``How many codes do we need for FOOD-CLASSIFICATION in the INVENTORY FILE? I think 20 ought to cover it.'' Why bias the interviewee's answer with your own?
Management-386 48
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
– Prepare for the Interview: • You should especially avoid threatening or critical questions.
• The purpose of the interview is to investigate, not to evaluate or criticize.
• Additional guidelines for questions are provided below: – Use clear and concise language.
– Don't include your opinion as part of a question.
– Avoid long or complex questions.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 49
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
– Avoid threatening questions.
– Don't use ``you'' when you mean a group of people.
– Conduct the Interview: • The actual interview can be characterized as consisting of three phases: the opening, body, and conclusion.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 50
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
• The interview opening: – The interview opening is intended to influence or motivate the interviewee to participate and communicate by establishing an ideal environment. – You should identify the purpose and length of the interview and explain how the gathered data will be used. – Here are three ways to effectively begin an interview: » Summarize the apparent problem, and explain how the problem was discovered.
» Offer an incentive or reward for participation.
» Ask the interviewee for advice or assistance.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 51
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
• The interview body: Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley – The
interview body
represents the most time consuming phase.
» During this phase, you obtain the interviewee's responses to your list of questions. » Take notes concerning both verbal and nonverbal responses from the interviewee. » It's very important for you to keep the interview on track.
» Anticipate the need to adapt the interview to the interviewee. » Probe for more facts when necessary.
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Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
• The interview conclusion: – During the
interview conclusion
, you should express your appreciation and provide answers to any questions posed by the interviewee. » The conclusion is very important for maintaining rapport and trust with the interviewee.
• The importance of human relations skills in interviewing cannot be overemphasized. Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 53
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
• Below is a set of rules that should be followed Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley during an interview.
– DO: » Be courteous.
» Listen carefully.
» Maintain control.
» Probe.
» Observe mannerisms and nonverbal communication.
» Be patient.
» Keep interviewee at ease.
» Maintain self-control.
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Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
• Rules (cont’d) – AVOID » Continuing an interview unnecessarily.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley » Assuming an answer is finished or leading nowhere.
» Revealing verbal and nonverbal clues.
» Using jargon.
» Revealing your personal biases.
» Talking instead of listening.
» Assuming anything about the topic and the interviewee.
» Tape recording -- a sign of poor listening skills.
5/1/2020 Management-386 55
Interviews
•
How to Conduct an Interview (Cont’d)
– Follow Up on the Interview: • To help maintain good rapport and trust with interviewees, you should send them a memo that Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley summarizes the interview. – This memo should remind the interviewees of their contributions to the systems project and allow them the opportunity to clarify any misinterpretations that you may have derived during the interview. – The interviewees should be given the opportunity to offer additional information they may have failed to bring out during the interview.
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Rapid Application Development (RAD) • Rapid Application Development is gaining popularity as a fact-finding technique for discovering user requirements.
– This technique allows analysts to quickly create mock forms and tables to simulate the implemented system. Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 57
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
– Users can suggest changes to the prototype real-time and in most cases watch as the analyst tweaks the software to produce the desired look and feel. • This process may take several iterations to correctly capture the functions necessary to automate the required business processes. • Once the prototype is completed, you have the basis for a users manual, a requirements specification, and a template for a test plan.
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 58
Joint Application Design
•
Introduction
–
Joint application design (JAD)
is a process whereby highly structured group meetings or mini-retreats involving system users, system owners, and analysts occur in a single room for an extended period of time (four to eight hours per day, anywhere from one day to a couple weeks).
Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 59
How to Plan and Conduct JAD Sessions
41' - 0" Food & Refreshments IS Professionals & Other Observers Users and Managers Flipchart Overhead Projector Computer Projection Device JAD Leader Blackboard Scribe Workstation Printer Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley 5/1/2020 Management-386 60
Fact-Finding Ethics
•
Introduction
– Often during your fact finding exercises you may come across or be analyzing information which is sensitive in nature. – The analyst must take great care to protect the data they have been entrusted with. – Most computer professional societies have a code of conduct and code of ethics their members must adhere to and abide by in the Source: Systems Analysis & Design Methods, 4ed, Whitten & Bentley way to conduct business. 5/1/2020 Management-386 61