The Birth of Modern Political Theory

1651-1789

Some basic questions of political philosophy

    What is the origin of government?

What is the purpose of government?

What legitimates the power and authority of government?

What is the best form of government?

Overview & Background: the Experience of England in the 17 th Century    English political tradition  The Magna Carta (1215)   Parliament Common Law The English Civil War (1642-49)   Charles I vs. Parliament Influence on Thomas Hobbes  Leviathan (1651) The Glorious Revolution (1688)  James II vs. Parliament   Influence on John Locke Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)

Hobbes vs. Locke: essential concepts

  Concepts they share:    The State of Nature Natural Rights The Social Contract Where they differ:   What drives human behavior?

 Passion (Hobbes)  Reason (Locke) What is the best form of government?

  Absolute monarchy (Hobbes) Constitutionalism (Locke) Hobbes Locke

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651)

      Wanted to construct a “science of politics” based on an indisputable principle This principle must be based on the strongest element in human nature The strongest element was passion, not reason The strongest passion is fear of violent death This fear gives rise to the natural right of self-

preservation

The natural right of self preservation is the basis of Hobbes’ thought Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651)

    In a state of nature there is a war of every man against every man

“No arts, no letters, and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death, and the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

To secure peace men make contracts establishing a sovereign power who is not subject to civil law since by its will it creates the law Of the three forms of sovereignty (monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy), monarchy is the most effective in securing peace Leviathan (1651)

John Locke, Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)

    The state of nature is not a state of perpetual war; All men are free and equal; no man by nature is sovereign over another man The law of nature, revealed by reason, governs the state of nature Natural rights include the right to Life, Liberty, and Estate (property) John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke, Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)

    No one ought to harm another in his life, liberty, or property; if anyone does harm another, the one he harms has the right to punish him Through a social contract, people create a government to protect their natural rights of life, liberty, and property The best form of government to protect natural rights is a government of limited powers (constitutionalism) If a government breaks the social contract, the people have the right to dissolve it Two Treatises of Civil Government (1690)

Overview & Background: the Experience of America and France in the 18 th Century    The Age of Enlightenment The Experience of America  The American Revolution (1775-1783)  Thomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence (1776)   James Madison, The Federalist, No. 10 (1787) The U.S. Constitution (1788) The Experience of France  Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762)   The French Revolution (1789-1799) The Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen (1789)

Thomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence (1776)

    The founding document of the United States of America Influenced by Enlightenment political thought, especially that of John Locke States the principles upon which the new nation would be founded Jefferson’s argument for independence    Natural rights A right to revolution A list of grievances Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)

Thomas Jefferson, The Declaration of Independence (1776)



“When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”



“We hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

The Declaration of Independence

James Madison, The Federalist, No. 10

    One of many essays published during the fight for the ratification of the Constitution (1787-88) During this time, Federalists supported the stronger central government under the proposed Constitution; Anti-Federalists were apprehensive about a stronger central government and opposed the Constitution Madison’s The Federalist, No. 10 was written to convince Anti Federalists that liberty could be safeguarded in a large republic

“Among the numerous advantages promised by a well constructed Union, none deserves to be more accurately developed than its tendency to break and control the violence of faction.”

James Madison (1751-1836)

The U.S. Constitution

    Establishes the government of the United States of America Implements the principles of Enlightenment political theory Creates a government of limited powers (constitutionalism) The Preamble explains the reasons for establishing this government:

“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”

Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762)

     Man is best in the state of nature Since perfect freedom is the natural condition of human beings, it is the existence of social restrictions that requires explanation Only the family is truly a natural association Military conquest and slavery in its usual forms cannot establish any genuine right for one person to rule over another Society must devolve from a social contract in which individual citizens voluntarily participate Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Jean Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762)

    But throughout history, the wealthiest and most powerful members of society made inequality a permanent feature of human society Rather than have a government which largely protects the wealth and the rights of the powerful few, government should be fundamentally based on the rights and equality of

everyone

These ideas were essential for both the French and American revolutions This social inequality was deeply felt in 18 th century France… Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Background to the French Revolution: France in the 18 th Century

1 st Estate – the clergy

• 150,000 • .5% of the population • owned 15% of the land • paid no taxes

2 nd Estate – the nobility

• 350,000 • 1.5% of the population • owned 20% of the land • paid

very

few taxes

The Three Estates (classes) 3 rd Estate – everyone else

• 22,500,000 • 98% of the population • bourgeoisie (middle class) – 8% •

sans-culottes

(urban workers) • peasants (farmers)

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789)

       Product of the first stage of the French Revolution (1789-99) Property, liberty, security, “resistance to oppression” declared natural rights Freedom of speech and press, religious toleration All citizens guaranteed equality before the law No arrest or imprisonment without due process Sovereignty affirmed to reside in the people Officers of the government subject to removal if they abused powers conferred upon them