Introduction and Tissues Human Anatomy BIOL 1010 Liston Campus What is Anatomy? Anatomy (= morphology): study of body’s structure Physiology: study of body’s function Structure reflects.
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Introduction and Tissues Human Anatomy BIOL 1010 Liston Campus What is Anatomy? Anatomy (= morphology): study of body’s structure Physiology: study of body’s function Structure reflects Function!!! Branches of Anatomy Gross: Large structures Surface: Landmarks Histology: Cells and Tissues Developmental: Structures change through life Embryology: Structures form and develop before birth Hierarchy of Structural Organization Each of these build upon one another to make up the next level: Chemical level Cellular Tissue Organ Organ system Organism Hierarchy of Structural Organization Chemical level Atoms combine to make molecules 4 macromolecules in the body Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids Hierarchy of Structural Organization Cellular Made up of cells and cellular organelles (molecules) Cells can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic Organelles are structures within cells that perform dedicated functions (“small organs”) http://cmweb.pvschools.net/~bbecke/newell/Cells.html Hierarchy of Structural Organization Tissue Collection of cells that work together to perform a specialized function 4 basic types of tissue in the human body: Epithelium Connective tissue Muscle tissue Nervous tissue www.emc.maricopa.edu Hierarchy of Structural Organization Organ Made up of tissue Heart Brain Liver Pancreas, etc…… Pg 181 Hierarchy of Structural Organization Organ system (11) Made up of a group of related organs that work together Integumentary Skeletal Muscular Nervous Endocrine Cardiovascular Lymphatic Respiratory Digestive Urinary Reproductive Circulatory Pg 341 Urinary System Hierarchy of Structural Organization Organism An individual human, animal, plant, etc…… Made up all of the organ systems Work together to sustain life Anatomical Directions Anatomical position Regions Axial vs. Appendicular Anatomical Directions-It’s all Relative! Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal) Medial vs. Lateral Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal) Superficial vs. Deep Proximal vs. Distal Anatomical Planes Frontal = Coronal Transverse = Horizontal = Cross Section Sagittal Pg 5 Reference Point Anterior – (ventral) Closer to the front surface of the body Posterior – (dorsal) Closer to the rear surface of the body Frontal Plane Medial – Lying closer to the midline Lateral – Lying further away from the midline Sagittal Plane Superior – (cranial) Closer to the head in relation to the entire body (More General) Inferior – (caudal) Away from the head or towards the lower part of the body Horizontal Plane Superficial – Towards the surface Deep – Away from the surface Surface of body or organ Proximal – Closer to the origin of a body part (More Specific) Distal – Further away from the origin of a body part Origin of a structure 4 Types of Tissue 1)Epithelium 2)Connective 3)Muscle 4)Nervous Tissues: groups of cells closely associated that have a similar structure and perform a related function Four types of tissue Epithelial = covering/lining Connective = support Muscle = movement Nervous = control Most organs contain all 4 types Tissue has non-living extracellular material between its cells EPITHELIAL TISSUE: sheets of cells cover a surface or line a cavity Functions Protection Secretion Absorption Ion Transport Characteristics of Epithelium Cellularity Composed of cells Specialized contacts Joined by cell junctions Polarity Apical vs. Basal surfaces differ Supported by connective tissue Avascular Innervated Highly regenerative Classification of Epithelium-based on number of layers and cell shape Layers Simple Stratified Stratified layers characterized by shape of apical layer Psuedostratified Shapes Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Transitional Types of Epithelium Simple squamous (1 layer) Lungs, blood vessels, ventral body cavity Simple cuboidal Kidney tubules, glands Simple columnar Stomach, intestines Pseudostratified columnar Respiratory passages (ciliated version) Stratified squamous (>1 layer) Epidermis, mouth, esophagus, vagina Named so according to apical cell shape Regenerate from below Deep layers cuboidal and columnar Transitional (not shown) Thins when stretches Hollow urinary organs All histology pictures property of BIOL 1010 Lab Special Epithelium Endothelium Simple squamous epithelium that lines vessels e.g. lymphatic & blood vessel Mesothelium Simple squamous epithelium that forms the lining of body cavities e.g. pleura, pericardium, peritoneum Features of Apical Surface of Epithelium Microvilli: (ex) in small intestine Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane of apical epithelial cell Increase surface area for absorption Cilia: (ex) respiratory tubes Whip-like, motile extension of plasma membrane Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way Features of Lateral Surface of Epithelium Cells are connected to neighboring cells via: Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together Cell Junctions (3 common) Desmosomes Proteins hold cells together to maintain integrity of tissue Tight Junctions Plasma membrane of adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes Gap junction Proteins allow small molecules to pass through Features of the Basal Surface of Epithelium Basement membrane Sheet between the epithelial and connective tissue layers Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below Made up of: Basal lamina: thin, non-cellular, supportive sheet made of proteins Superficial layer Acts as a selective filter Assists epithelial cell regeneration by moving new cells Reticular fiber layer Deeper layer Support Glands Epithelial cells that make and secrete a product Products are water-based and usually contain proteins Classified as: Unicellular vs. multicellular Exocrine vs. Endocrine Page 138 Glands: epithelial cells that make and secrete a water-based substance w/proteins Exocrine Glands Secrete substance onto body surface or into body cavity Activity is local Have ducts Unicellular or Multicellular (ex) goblet cells, salivary, mammary, pancreas, liver Glands: epithelial cells that make and secrete a water-based substance w/proteins Endocrine Glands Secrete product into blood stream Either stored in secretory cells or in follicle surrounded by secretory cells Hormones travel to target organ to increase response (excitatory) No ducts (ex) pancreas, adrenal, pituitary, thyroid 4 Types of Tissue 1)Epithelium 2)Connective 3)Muscle 4)Nervous 4 Types of Connective Tissue 1) 2) 3) 4) Connective Tissue Proper Cartilage Bone Tissue Blood Connective Tissue (CT): most abundant and diverse tissue Four Classes Functions include connecting, storing & carrying nutrients, protection, fight infection CT contains large amounts of non-living extracellular matrix Contains a variety of cells and fibers Some types vascularized All CT originates from mesenchyme Embryonic connective tissue Fibers in Connective Tissue Fibers For Support Reticular: form networks for structure & support (ex) cover capillaries Collagen: strongest, most numerous, provide tensile strength (ex) dominant fiber in ligaments Elastic: long + thin, stretch and retain shape (ex) dominant fiber in elastic cartilage Components of Connective Tissue Fibroblasts: cells that produce all fibers in CT produce + secrete protein subunits to make them produce ground matrix Interstitial (Tissue) Fluid derived from blood in CT proper medium for nutrients, waste + oxygen to travel to cells found in ground matrix Ground Matrix (substance): part of extra-cellular material that holds and absorbs interstitial fluid Made and secreted by fibroblasts jelly-like with sugar & protein molecules 1) Connective Tissue Proper Two kinds: Loose CT & Dense CT Functions Support and bind to other tissue Hold body fluids Defends against infection Stores nutrients as fat Each function performed by different kind of fibers and cells in specific tissue Defense from Infection Areolar tissue below epithelium is body’s first defense Cells travel to CT in blood Macrophages-eat foreign particles Plasma cells-secrete antibodies, mark molecules for destruction Mast cells-contain chemical mediators for inflammation response White Blood Cells = neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils-fight infection Ground substance + cell fibers-slow invading microorganisms Loose CT Proper Areolar CT All types of fibers present All typical cell types present Surrounds blood vessels and nerves Specialized Loose CT Proper Adipose tissue Loaded with adipocytes, highly vascularized, high metabolic activity Insulates, produces energy, supports Found in hypodermis under skin Reticular CT Contains only reticular fibers Forms caverns to hold free cells, forms internal “skeleton” of some organs Found in bone marrow, holds blood cells, lymph nodes, spleen Dense/Fibrous Connective Tissue Contains more collagen Can resist extremely strong pulling forces Regular vs. Irregular Regular-fibers run same direction, parallel to pull (eg) fascia, tendons, ligaments Irregular-fibers thicker, run in different directions (eg) dermis, fibrous capsules at ends of bones Dense regular Dense irregular Components of CT Proper Summarized Cells Matrix Fibroblasts Gel-like ground substance Defense cells Collagen fibers Reticular fibers Elastic fibers -macrophages -white blood cells Adipocytes 2) Cartilage Chondroblasts produce cartilage Chondrocytes mature cartilage cells Reside in lacunae More abundant in embryo than adult Firm, Flexible Resists compression (eg) trachea, meniscus Avascular (chondrocytes can function w/ low oxygen) NOT Innervated Perichondrium dense, irregular connective tissue around cartilage growth/repair of cartilage resists expansion during compression of cartilage Cartilage in the Body Three types: Hyaline most abundant fibers in matrix support via flexibility/resilience (eg) at limb joints, ribs, nose Elastic many elastic fibers in matrix too great flexibility (eg) external ear, epiglottis Fibrocartilage resists both compression and tension (eg) meniscus, annulus fibrosus Components of Cartilage Summarized Cells Matrix Chondrocytes Gel-like ground substance Chondroblasts Lots of water (in growing cartilage) Fibroblasts Some have collagen and elastic fibers 3) Bone Tissue: (a bone is an organ) Well-vascularized Function: support (eg) pelvic bowl, legs protect (eg) skull, vertebrae mineral storage (eg) calcium, phosphate (inorganic component) movement (eg) walk, grasp objects blood-cell formation (eg) red bone marrow Bone Tissue Osteoblasts Secrete organic part of bone matrix Osteocytes Mature bone cells Sit in lacunae Maintain bone matrix Osteoclasts Degrade and reabsorb bone Periosteum External layer of CT that surrounds bone Outer: Dense irregular CT Inner: Osteoblasts, osteoclasts Endosteum Internal layer of CT that lines cavities and covers trabeculae Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/.../skeletal.htm Compact Bone External layer Osteon (Haversian system) Parallel to the long axis of the bone Groups of concentric tubules (lamella) Lamella = layer of bone matrix where all fibers run in the same direction Adjacent lamella fibers run in opposite directions Haversian Canal runs through center of osteon Contains blood vessels and nerves Connected to each other by perforating (Volkman) canals Interstitial lamellae fills spaces and forms periphery www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/.../CartilageandBone03.htm Bone Anatomy: Spongy bone Spongy bone (cancellous bone): internal layer Trabeculae: small, needle-like pieces of bone form honeycomb each made of several layers of lamellae + osteocytes no canal for vessels space filled with bone marrow not as dense, no direct stress at bone’s center Shapes of Bones Flat = skull, sternum, clavicle Irregular = pelvis, vertebrae Short = carpals, patella Long = femur, phalanges, metacarpals, humerus Anatomy of a Long Bone Diaphysis Medullary Cavity Nutrient Artery & Vein 2 Epiphyses Epiphyseal Plates Epiphyseal Artery & Vein Periosteum Does not cover epiphyses Endosteum Covers trabeculae of spongy bone Lines medullary cavity of long bones training.seer.cancer.gov/.../illu_long_bone.jpg 2 Types of Bone Formation Intramembranous Ossification Membrane bones: most skull bones and clavicle Osteoblasts in membrane secrete osteoid that mineralizes Endochondral Ossification: All other bones Begins with a cartilaginous model Cartilage calcifies Medullary cavity is formed by action of osteoclasts Epiphyses grow and eventually calcify Epiphyseal plates remain cartilage for up to 20 years Bone Growth & Remodeling GROWTH Appositional Growth = widening of bone Bone tissue added on surface by osteoblasts of periosteum Medullary cavity maintained by osteoclasts Lengthening of Bone Epiphyseal plates enlarge by chondroblasts Matrix calcifies (chondrocytes die and disintegrate) Bone tissue replaces cartilage on diaphysis side REMODELING Due to mechanical stresses on bones, their tissue needs to be replaced Osteoclasts-take up bone ( = breakdown) release Ca2++ , PO4 to body fluids from bone Osteoblasts-form new bone by secreting osteoid Ideally osteoclasts & osteoblasts work at the same rate! Components of Bone Tissue Summarized Cells Matrix Osteblasts Gel-like ground substance calcified with inorganic salts Fibroblasts Collagen fibers Osteocytes Osteoclasts 4) Blood: Atypical Connective Tissue Function: Transports waste, gases, nutrients, hormones through cardiovascular system Helps regulate body temperature Protects body by fighting infection Derived from mesenchyme Hematopoiesis: production of blood cells Occurs in red bone marrow In adults, axial skeleton, girdles, proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur Blood Cells Erythrocytes: (RBC) small, oxygen-transporting most abundant in blood no organelles, filled w/hemoglobin pick up O2 at lungs, transport to rest of body Leukocytes: (WBC) complete cells , 5 types fight against infectious microorganisms stored in bone marrow for emergencies *Platelets = Thrombocytes: fragments of cytoplasm plug small tears in vessel walls, initiates clotting Components of Blood Summarized Cells Matrix Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Plasma (liquid matrix) Leukocytes (white blood cells) NO fibers *Platelets (cell fragments) 4 Types of Tissue 1)Epithelium 2)Connective 3)Muscle 4)Nervous Muscle Tissue Muscle cells/fibers Elongated Contain many myofilaments: Actin & Myosin FUNCTION Movement Maintenance of posture Joint Stabilization Heat Generation Three types: Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth Skeletal Muscle Tissue (each skeletal muscle is an organ) Cells Long and cylindrical, in bundles Multinucleate Obvious Striations Skeletal Muscles-Voluntary Connective Tissue Components: Endomysium-surrounds fibers Perimysium-surrounds bundles Epimysium-surrounds the muscle Attached to bones, fascia, skin Origin & Insertion academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/.../muscular.htm Cardiac Muscle Cells Branching, chains of cells Single or Binucleated Striations Connected by Intercalated discs Cardiac Muscle-Involuntary Myocardium-heart muscle Pumps blood through vessels Connective Tissue Component Endomysium: surrounding cells www.answers.com Smooth Muscle Tissue Cells Single cells, uninucleate No striations Smooth Muscle-Involuntary 2 layers-opposite orientation (peristalsis) Found in hollow organs, blood vessels Connective Tissue Component Endomysium: surrounds cells 4 Types of Tissue 1)Epithelium 2)Connective 3)Muscle 4)Nervous Nervous Tissue Neurons: specialized nerve cells conduct impulses Cell body, dendrite, axon Characterized by: No mitosis (cell replication) Longevity High metabolic rate www.morphonix.com Nervous Tissue: control Support cells (= Neuroglial): nourishment, insulation, protection Satellite cells-surround cell bodies within ganglia Schwann cells-surround axons (PNS) Microglia-phagocytes Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin sheaths around axons Ependymal cells-line brain/spinal cord, ciliated, help circulate CSF Brain, spinal cord, nerves Integumentary System Functions Protection Mechanical, thermal, chemical, UV Cushions & insulates deeper organs Prevention of water loss Thermoregulation Excretion Salts, urea, water Sensory reception Microanatomy - Layers of the Skin Epidermis Epithelium Dermis Connective tissue Hypodermis / subcutis Loose connective tissue Anchors skin to bone or muscle Skin Appendages = outgrowths of epidermis Hair follicles Sweat and Sebaceous glands Nails www.uptodate.com/.../Melanoma_anatomy.jpg Cell Layers of the Epidermis Stratum corneum Dead keratinocytes Stratum lucidum Only in “thick” skin Dead keratinocytes Stratum granulosum Water proofing Stratum spinosum Resists tears and tension Stratum basale Sensory receptors Melanocytes Keratinocytes (in all layers) 15minbeauty.blogspot.com Layers of the Dermis Highly innervated Highly vascularized Collagen & Elastic fibers 2 layers: Papillary layer (20%) Areolar CT Collagen & Elastic fibers Innervation Hair follicles Reticular layer (80%) Dense irregular CT Glands sebum 2.5 million sweat glands!! Smooth muscle fibers Innervation www.uptodate.com/.../Melanoma_anatomy.jpg Hypodermis Also called superficial fascia Areolar & Adipose Connective Tissue Functions Store fat Anchor skin to muscle, etc. Insulation Structure of Tubular Organs LUMEN Tunica Mucosa Lamina epithelialis Lamina propria Lamina muscularis mucosa Tunica Submucosa Tunica Muscularis Inner circular Outer longitudinal Tunica Adventitia / Serosa Adventitia – covers organ directly Serosa – suspends organ in the peritoneal cavity