Transcript OBSERVATION © LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION & KEITH MORRISON STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER • Structured observation • The need to practise structured observation • Analyzing.

OBSERVATION
© LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE
MANION & KEITH MORRISON
STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER
• Structured observation
• The need to practise structured observation
• Analyzing data from structured observations
• Critical incidents
• Naturalistic and participant observation
• Data analysis for less structured observations
• Natural and artificial settings for observation
• The use of technology in recording observations
• Timing and causality with observational data
• Ethical considerations
• Some cautionary comments
OBSERVATIONS ARE . . .
• Looking (often systematically)
• Noting systematically people, events,
behaviours, settings, artifacts, routines etc.
• Concerned with live data and situations
• Selective and theory-driven (there are no
neutral observations)
• On a continuum from highly structured to
semi-structured to unstructured
ROLE OF OBSERVER
• Complete participant
• Participant as observer
• Observer as participant
• Complete observer
Complete participation to complete detachment
CONTINUA OF OBSERVATION
Prespecified/pre-ordinate
Quantitative
Time bound
Short-term
Structured/systematic
Participant observation
Highly focused/early focused
Descriptive
Overt
Laboratory/contrived settings
Direct observation
Observing others
Responsive
Qualitative
Open-ended
Long-term
Unstructured/ad hoc
Non-participant observation
Unfocused/late focused
Explanatory
Covert
Natural settings
Indirect observation
Observing self and others
OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .
• The focus of the observation(s)
• Why they are observing
• The research questions that the observational
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data will address
What to include and exclude
How to record the observations
Where to observe
What to observe
Whom to observe
How many people, events, settings to observe
OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .
• How systematic, structured, descriptive to be
• The ‘unit’ of observation (e.g. a teacher, a
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student; a pair, a small group, a class)
What resources are necessary
Problems that might be encountered
Additional information that may be needed to
complement the observational record
The processing and analysis of data
OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .
• How the observation may be affected by the
sex, sexuality, ethnicity, class, appearance,
age, language, personality, temperament,
attitude, interpersonal behaviour, familiarity
with the situation, involvement and concern of
the observer
• Whether the observer will stand or sit, or
move around a setting
• Where to stand or sit
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
• Systematic
• Enables the researcher to generate numerical
data from the observations
• Non-participant observer
• Data entered onto a structured observation
schedule
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
• Observation categories are discrete: no
overlap
• Timed
• The researcher will need to practise
completing the schedule consistently and at
speed
• The researcher will need to decide what
entry/code/symbol is to be made in the
appropriate category
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Student to Student
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Student to Students
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Student to Teacher
Students to Teacher
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Teacher to Student
Teacher to Students
Student to Self
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Task in hand
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Previous task
Future task
Non-task
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EVENT SAMPLING
(Each occurrence)
Boss shouts at employee
Employee shouts at boss
Employee’s colleague shouts at boss
Boss shouts at employee’s colleague
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TWO DIFFERENT STORIES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss shouts at employee
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Employee shouts at boss
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Employee’s friend shouts at boss /
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Boss shouts at employee’s friend
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss shouts at employee
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Employee shouts at boss
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Employee’s friend shouts at boss
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Boss shouts at employee’s friend
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INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
(On the instant of time)
1 2 3 4
Boss smiles at employee
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Employee smiles at boss
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Boss smiles at employee’s friend / / /
Employee’s friend smiles at boss
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5 6 7
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INTERVAL RECORDING
(What has happened in the previous
time period)
RATING SCALES
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Warm
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Stimulating _
Businesslike _
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Aloof
Dull
Slipshod
CRITICAL INCIDENTS
THE NEED TO PRACTISE
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
• Entering data consistently and at speed
• Catching all the data
• Where to observe/stand/sit
ANALYZING DATA FROM
STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS
• Frequencies
• Patterns
• Unusual data
• Frequently occurring
• Aggregated data
• Quantitized and qualitized
NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION
• Naturalistic research often uses participant
observation
• Observations are recorded in field notes and
audio-visually
FIELD NOTES (1)
Types:
• Jottings; transcriptions; reports; pen
portraits;reconstructions of conversations;
descriptions of physical settings; reports of
events and behaviour; descriptions of
researcher’s activities; ongoing notes; logs
and diaries; notes on pre-determined themes;
chronologs; discussion data
FIELD NOTES (2)
Timing and focus:
• Notes made in situ;
• Expanded notes that are made as soon as
possible after the initial observations;
• Journal notes to record issues, ideas,
difficulties etc. that arise during the
fieldwork;
• A developing, tentative running record of
ongoing analysis and interpretation.
FIELD NOTES (3)
Description
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Space: the physical setting;
Actors: the people in the situation;
Activities: the sets of related acts that are taking
place.
Objects: the artifacts and physical things that are
there;
Acts: the specific actions that participants are doing;
Events: the sets of activities that are taking place;
Time: the sequence of acts, activities and events;
Goals: what people are trying to achieve;
Feelings: what people feel and how they express
this.
FIELD NOTES (4)
Reflection:
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Reflections on the descriptions and analyses
that have been done;
Reflections on the methods used in the
observations and data collection and analysis;
Ethical issues, tensions, problems and
dilemmas;
The reactions of the observer to what has been
observed and recorded – attitude, emotion,
analysis etc.;
Points of clarification that have been and/or
need to be made;
Possible lines of further inquiry.
DATA ANALYSIS FROM FIELD NOTES
Qualitative data analysis:
• Coding, classifying, categorizing
• Nodes and connection
• Summarizing
• Narrative accounts
• Constant comparison
• Grounded theory
• Theoretical saturation
• Thematic analysis
• Patterning
• Quantitizing (e.g. frequencies)
USING TECHNOLOGY IN
RECORDING OBSERVATIONS
Audio-visual recording
• Problems of reactivity
• Fixed or moving camera
• Operator present with camera/camera; no
operator present
• How many cameras?
• Location of camera(s)
• Close focus or panorama?
TIMING AND CAUSALITY WITH
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
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When to observe effects of an intervention?
How many time points for observation?
How frequent are the observations?
The more accurately we wish to know the causal
sequences, the more frequently and closer together
must be the observational data collection points.
The more complex is the phenomenon under
investigation, the more time points for observational
data collection may be necessary in order to
understand the causation.
Ethnography may be more useful than numerical
studies in identifying causality.
ETHICS
• Informed consent
• Covert or overt
• Disturbing the natural setting
• Deception and pretence
• Impression management
• Confidentiality/anonymity/privacy/non-
traceability
• Protection of individuals
• Loyalties (and to whom)
• Ignoring dubious acts (e.g. criminal acts)
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
• Selective attention of the observer
• Reactivity
• Attention deficit of observer
• Validity of constructs
• Selective data entry
• Selective memory for write-ups of observations
• Interpersonal matters and counter-transference
• Expectancy effects
• Decisions on how to record
• Number of observers
• The problem of inference
PLANNING OBSERVATIONS
• When, where, how and what to observe
• How much structure is necessary in the
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observation (structured to unstructured)
The duration of the observation period
The timing of the observation period
The context of the observation
The opportunity to observe
Merging subjective and objective observation
The value of covert participant observation in
order to reduce reactivity
PLANNING OBSERVATIONS
• Threats to reliability and validity
• Operationalizing the observation so that what
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counts as evidence is consistent,
unambiguous and valid
Appropriate kind of structured observation and
recording
Ethical issues
Whether deception is justified
Which role(s) to adopt on the continuum of
complete participant to complete observer