Chapter 2.2 Game Design Overview Game design as… full-time occupation is historically new field of practical study – even newer.
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Transcript Chapter 2.2 Game Design Overview Game design as… full-time occupation is historically new field of practical study – even newer.
Chapter 2.2
Game Design
Overview
Game design as…
full-time occupation is historically new
field of practical study – even newer
2
Overview
Folk games [Costikyan]
“Traditional” games with cultural origins
Examples:
Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses)
Chess
Go
Backgammon
Poker
3
Overview
This introduction covers:
Terms
Concepts
Approach
All from a workaday viewpoint
4
Overview
There is no one “right” way to design
There are many successful approaches
Specific requirements and constraints of
each project and team determine what
works and what does not.
This introduction is but a scratch
5
The Language of Games
Game development – a young industry
Standards are still being formulated
Theory
Practice
Terminology
6
The Language of Games
Debate continues over high-level views
Lack of standard (concrete) definitions
Game
Play
High-level concepts tricky to articulate
7
The Language of Games
Workplace differences usually low-level
Working terminology
Example
“actors” instead of “agents”
“geo” instead of “model”
Workflow – how things get done
Individual responsibilities
Processes under which work is performed
8
The Language of Games
Why do we play?
What is the nature of games?
Not a designer’s problem
Not a designer’s problem
How is a game formed of parts?
A designer’s problem
9
The Language of Games
Our simplistic high-level definitions
Easy to modify to fit multiple cultures
Practical over metaphysically true
play
game
aesthetics
10
Play and Game
Play
Game
Interactions to elicit emotions
Object of rule-bound play
General enough to cover everything
11
Aesthetics and Frame
Aesthetics
Emotional responses during play
Naïve practical approach, not classical
Frame
The border of a game’s context
Inside the frame is in the game
Outside the frame is real life
12
Approaching Design
Computer games are an art form
Game design practices can be taught
Technical discipline like music, film, poetry
The art of making dynamic models
13
Approaching Design
A model represents something
Mental/Cognitive
Concepts
Beliefs
Maps
Mathematical
Equations
Formulas
Algorithms
Examples:
Locations
Relationships
14
Approaching Design
Abstract model
Conceptual and idealized
A tool for investigating specific questions
Simplifies thinking to help understand problems
May include assumptions thought to be false
Abstract game
One rule
The piece is moved to the open square
15
A Player-Game Model
A model of the player – game relationship
PLAYER
Mechanics
GAME
Interface
System
16
A Player-Game Model
Mechanics
Interface
Things the player does
Communication between player and game
System
Underlying structure and behavior
17
Control and State Variables
Defined by Isaacs in Differential Games
Control variables
Inputs from players
State variables
Quantities indicating game state
18
Play Mechanics
Gameplay
Feelings of playing a particular game
Activities engaged in a particular game
(Play/game) Mechanics
Specific to game activities
“What the player does”
19
Seven Stages of Action
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
T HE GAME
Goals
Execution
Intention to act
Sequence of action
Execution of action
sequence
Evaluation
Evaluating interpretations
Interpreting perceptions
Perceiving states
20
Seven Stages of Action
A goal is formed
Models the desired state
The desired result of an action
Examples:
Have a glass of water in hand
Capture a queen
Taste ice cream
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
T HE GAME
Goals
21
Seven Stages of Action
Goals turned into intentions to act
Specific statements of what is to be done
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
T HE GAME
Goals
22
Seven Stages of Action
Intentions put into an action sequence
The order internal commands will be performed
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
T HE GAME
Goals
23
Seven Stages of Action
The action sequence is executed
The player manipulates control variables
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
T HE GAME
Goals
24
Seven Stages of Action
The state of the game is perceived
State variables are revealed via the interface
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
T HE GAME
Goals
25
Seven Stages of Action
Player interprets their perceptions
Interpretations based upon a model of the system
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
T HE GAME
Goals
26
Seven Stages of Action
Player evaluates the interpretations
Current states are compared with intentions and goals
Intention
to act
Sequence of
action
Execution of
action sequence
Evaluating
interpretations
Interpreting
perceptions
Perceiving
states
T HE GAME
Goals
27
Seven Stages of Action
Donald Norman’s approximate model
Actions not often in discrete stages
Not all actions progress through all stages
28
Seven Stages of Action
Scales to…
…an individual mechanic
A “primary element”
Examples:
Move
Shoot
Talk
…an entire game
A generalized model of interaction
29
Designer and Player Models
Systems are built from designer mental models
Design models may only anticipate player goals
User's
Model
Design
Model
Designer
System
User
System Image
30
Designer and Player Models
Players build mental models from mechanics
Based upon interactions with the system image
The reality of the system in operation
Not from direct communication with designers
Player and designer models can differ significantly
User's
Model
Design
Model
Designer
System
User
System Image
31
Core Mechanics
Typical patterns of action
Fundamental mechanics cycled repeatedly
Examples:
Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore
Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit, exterminate
referred to as the “four X’s”
32
Premise
The metaphors of action and setting
Directs the player experience
Provides a context in which mechanics fit
Players map game states to the premise
33
Premise
Story is the typical example of premise
Time
Place
Characters
Relationships
Motivations
Etc.
34
Premise
Premise may also be abstract
Tetris operates under a metaphor
The metaphor: arranging colored shapes
Encompasses all game elements
Player discussions use the language of the
premise
35
Premise
Games are models
Activities being modeled form premise
Actions may appear similar in model
Usually are fundamentally quite different
Sports games are good examples
Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport
36
Premise
Goes beyond setting and tone
Alters the players mental model
Basis of player understanding and strategy
37
Premise
Possible
Capable of happening in the real world
Plausible
Possible within the unique world of premise
“Makes sense” within the game’s premise
Consistent with the premise as understood
38
Choice and Outcome
Choice
Outcome
A question asked of the player
The end result of a given choice
Possibility space
Represents the set of possible events
A “landscape” of choice and outcome
39
Choice and Outcome
Consequence or Weight
The significance of an outcome
Greater consequences alter the course of the
game more significantly
Choices are balanced first by consequence
40
Choice and Outcome
Well-designed choice
Often desirable and undesirable effects
Should relate to player goals
Balanced against neighboring choices
Too much weight to every choice is melodrama
Orthogonal choices – distinct from others
Not just “shades of grey”
41
Qualities of Choice
Terms in which to discuss choices
Hollow – lacking consequence
Obvious – leaves no choice to be made
Uninformed – arbitrary decision
Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings
Weighted – good and bad in every choice
Immediate – effects are immediate
Long-term – effects over extended period
Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other
42
Goals and Objectives
Objectives
Designed tasks players must perform
Rigid requirements – formal
Goals
An intentional outcome
Notions that direct player action
Scales all levels of motivation
From selecting particular strategies…
…to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)
43
Goals and Objectives
Find sword
Rescue dragon
Kill princess
Find sword
Kill dragon
Rescue princess
Designer
System
User
Objectives and goals can differ
Players goals reflect their understanding of the game
Designers must consider how the game communicates with players
Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used
44
Resources
Resources
Things used by agents to reach goals
To be meaningful, they must be…
Useful – provide some value
Limited – in total or rate of supply
45
Economies
Economies
Systems of supply, distribution, consumption
Questions regarding game economies:
What resources exist?
How and when will resources be used?
How and when will resources be supplied?
What are their limits?
46
Player Strategy
Situation
Result
People usually reason with commonsense
Action
A view of linear causation – cause and effect
Complex systems do not behave linearly
Players need information to support linear strategy
47
Game Theory
Game Theory
Utility
A measure of desire associated with an outcome
Payoffs
Branch of economics
Studies decision making
The utility value for a given outcome
Preference
The bias of players towards utility
48
Game Theory
Rational Players
Abstract model players – not real people
Always try to maximize their potential utility
Solve problems using pure logic
Always fully aware of the state of the game
49
Game Theory
Games of skill
Games of Chance
One-player games
Outcomes determined solely by choices
One-player games
Outcomes determined in whole or part by nature (chance)
Games of Strategy
Competitions between two or more players
50
Game Theory
Decision under certainty
Risky decisions
Players know the outcome of any decision
Probabilities of nature are known
Decision under uncertainty
Probabilities of nature are unknown
51
Interface
Interface
Input
Input, presentation, and feedback.
Player to game
Output
Game to player
52
Interface
Contains both hardware, software, and
performance elements.
Hardware such as game pads
Software such as engines
Performance such as pressing a button
53
Interface
Graphical user interface (GUI)
A visual paradigm of control
54
Interface
Typical perspectives:
First-person
Over-the-shoulder (OTS)
Overhead (top-down)
Side
Isometric
55
Interface
General categories of audio
Music
Sound effects
Dialog
56
Interface
Music
Powerful tool for establishing mood and theme
57
Interface
Controls
Physical input devices
Control inputs
User manipulations of the controls
They are not strategies
Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a combo
Strategies involve deciding when to perform
58
Interface
Key map or control table
A diagram showing control input, action,
and context
59
Interface
Control diagrams
Show input, action, and context
Action
Control
Context
Left
all
Right
all
Forward
all
Backward
all
Sprint
all
Pass
Offense
Lob
Offense
Shoot
Offense
Steal
Defense
Block
Defense
Hit
Defense
60
Interface
Front-end
In application software
The visible portion of the application
In games
GUI elements not displayed during play
61
Interface
HUD (Head-Up Display)
Displays during play
Shows and other information difficult to present
directly in the game environment
Examples
Scores
Resource levels
Mini Map
Chat
Alerts
Level
>need backup!!!
>No
>...
2
62
Interface
Mapping
An understood relationship between two things
Especially the relationship of a model to its subject
Examples
63
HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics
HCI – Human-Computer Interaction
Study of…
Communication between users and computers
How people design, build, and use interfaces
Better support for cooperative work
Cognitive Ergonomics
Analyzes the cognitive representations and
processes involved with performing tasks
64
Design of Everyday Things
Norman’s five principles of design
Visibility
Mappings
The perceived uses of an object
Constraints
Understandable relationships between controls and
actions
Affordances
Making the parts visible
Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t
Feedback
Reporting what has been done and accomplished
65
Systems
System
A set of interrelated components
Architecture
Their function and relationships form a whole
The particular arrangement of system elements
Game systems exist to enable play mechanics
Relationships between components determine
how the system works to produce results
66
Systems
Objects
Attributes
Properties determining what objects are
Behaviors
Pieces of a system
Actions the objects can perform
Relationships
How the behavior and attributes of objects affect
each other while the system operates
67
Systems
Two general approaches to design
Special case
Experiences built one scene/level at a time
Anticipate states while pre-scripting events
Solved by discovering the intentions of the designer
Systemic
General behaviors are designed
Scenes/Levels are specific configuations
Some events may still be pre-scripted
Solved by understanding the system
68
Systems
Emergent complexity
Emergence
Behaviors that cannot be predicted simply
from the rules of a system
Coined by George Henry Lewes in 1873
See: John Conway’s Game of Life
69
Systems
Dynamics
The behavior of systems over time
Generalizing dynamic behavior is hard
Dynamics determined by a given
architecture
70
Systems
Cybernetics
Study of communication, control, and regulation
71
Systems
A basic cybernetic system has:
Sensor – detects a condition
Comparator – evaluates the information
Thermometer
Switch
Activator – alters the environment when triggered by the
comparator
Activator
Comparator
Sensor
72
Systems
Feedback
The portion of a system’s output that is returned into the
system
Feedback Loop
The path taken by the feedback
Goal
Rate
Action
Information
Level
73
Systems
Positive feedback
Leads to runaway behavior
Difficult to make use of
Negative feedback
Leads to goal seeking behaviors
Most common form in systems
goal
Positive Feedback
Negative Feedback
74
Systems
Negative feedback
Stabilizes the game
Forgives the loser
Prolongs the game
Magnifies late successes
Positive feedback
Destabilizes the game
Rewards the winner
Can end the game
Magnifies early successes
Marc Leblanc
75
Systems
System Dynamics
Created by Jay Forrester 1956, MIT
A discipline for modeling and simulation
Originally a tool for policy analysis
Applicable to any system
76
Constraints
Platform
General description of hardware and software
Personal computer – PC, Mac, etc.
Console – Game Cube, PlayStation, Xbox, etc.
Handheld – DS, Game Boy Advance, PSP, etc.
Mobile device – Cel Phones, NGage, PDA, etc.
Arcade – custom vending games (e.g. Time Crisis)
77
Constraints
Game Saves
Save triggers
Save-anywhere
Save points
Coded text saves
78
Genres
Genre – a category describing
generalities of conventions, style, and
content
79
Genres
Action
Adventure
Arcade
Casual
Education
Fighting
First-person shooter
Platform
Racing
Rhythm
Role-Playing (RPG)
Simulation
Sports
Strategy
Puzzle
Traditional
80
Audiences
Target audience
Demographics
Group of expected consumers
Study of relevant economic and social
statistics about a given population
Demographic variables
The relevant factors
81
Audiences
Market
Demographic segmentation of consumers
Market segments
Smaller sub-segment of the market; more tightly defined
Demographic profile
Typical consumer attributes in a market
82
Audiences
Heavy Users
Hardcore gamer
Those of the numeric minority of potential users responsible
for majority of sales of any product
“80/20 rule”
Game industry term for heavy video game users
Casual gamer
Game industry term for all other gamers
83
Audiences
Typically assumptions of the hardcore:
Play games over long sessions
Discuss games frequently and at length
Knowledgeable about the industry
Higher threshold for frustration
Desire to modify or extend games creatively
Have the latest game systems
Engage in competition with themselves, the game, and
others
84
Audiences
Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro
Internal experience
Hard fun
Challenge of strategy and problem solving
Easy fun
Enjoyment from visceral activities
Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure
Social experience
Stimulating social faculties – competition, teamwork,
bonding, and recognition
85
Iterating
Waterfall method
Development methodology
Design and production are broken into phases
Iterative development
Practice of producing things incrementally
Refining and re-refining the product
86
Iterating
Prototypes
Physical prototypes
Early working models of the product
Used to test ideas and techniques
Non-electronic models; physical materials
Software prototypes
Used regularly during iterative development
87
Iterating
Software testing
Tester
Person trained in methods of evaluation
Bug
Process of verifying performance and reliability of a software
product
Discrepancy between expected and actual behavior
Problem/Bug report
Description of the behavior of the discrepancy
88
Iterating
Focus test
Testing session using play-testers
Testers represent the target audience
Lots of feedback at one time
Data can be compromised by group think
89
Iterating
Tuning
Developing solutions by adjusting systems
Iterations are faster
Changes are less dramatic
Balance
Equilibrium in a relationship
Player relationships, mechanics, systems, etc.
90
Iterating
Intransitive relationships
Multiple elements offer weaknesses and strengths relative to
each other as a whole
Balanced as a group
Example: Rock-Paper-Scissors (RPS)
Heavy
Infantry
Archers
Cavalry
91
Creativity
Ability to create
Ability to produce an idea, action, or
object considered new and valuable
92
Creativity
Classic approach - Graham Wallace
Preparation
Incubation
Sudden illumination – Eureka!
Evaluation
Mulling things over
Insight
Background research and comprehension
Validating revealed insights
Elaboration
Transforming the idea into substance
93
Creativity
Brainstorming
Generating ideas without discrimination
Evaluation after elaboration
Can be unfocused
94
Creativity
Six Thinking Hats
White Hat – neutral and objective
Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction
Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer
Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic
Green Hat – growth and creativity
Blue Hat – process and control
Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the
creative endeavor
Edward de Bono
95
Inspiration
Board games
Team competition
Temporal systems
Martial arts
Serialized stories
Music
Continuity techniques
Television
Fantasy and agency
Sports
Dynamic narratives
Books
Film
Resource management
Paper RPGs
Spatial relationships
Card games
Discipline in action
Children
Invention
96
Communication
Documentation
Methods vary widely
Written, descriptive model of the game
Depth varies according to the needs of the game
97
Communication
Treatment
A brief, general description of the game and the
fundamental concepts
May include:
Concept statement
Goals and objectives
Core mechanics and systems
Competitive analysis
Licensing and IP information
Target platform and audience
Scope
Key features
98
Communication
Other document types may include:
Preliminary design document
Initial Design Document
Revised Design Document
General Design Document
Expanded Design Document
Technical Design Document
Final Design Document
99
Communication
Flowcharts
A typical technique for diagramming steps in a
process
Most developers are familiar
Start/End
Process/
Action
Decision
Y/N
Delay
100
Communication
W andering
City
Start
Quest
No
Search for
Quest
No
Ye s
City
Quest Details
Ac cept
Recruit
Yes
Gather PC Allie s
Em bark/Split
Gather
Wilderness
Go to
Equip
Recruits
Seek Aid
Gear
Regroup
Artifacts
Assistance
Encounter
101
Communication
Associative diagram
Drawing that helps manage and organize information visually
Mind Map
A style of associative diagram
Key words and figures are placed on branches
weapon
fighting
range
102
Psychology
Working Memory
Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time
while other cognitive operations on them
103
Psychology
Attention
Method of enhancing perceptions relative
to other stimuli in the same environment
How we focus on important things
Limited capacity
104
Psychology
Classical conditioning
Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another
stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally
Before conditioning
Conditioning
After conditioning
105
Psychology
Unconditioned stimulus – Meat
Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat
Conditioned stimulus – Tone
Conditioned response – Salivation over tone
Before conditioning
Conditioning
After conditioning
106
Psychology
Operant conditioning
Learning by encouraging or discouraging
Operant
A response; the action in question
Example: pressing a button
Reinforcement contingency
Consistent relationship between the
operant and a result in the environment
107
Psychology
Reinforcers
Increase the probability an action will be repeated
Positive reinforcement
Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior
Negative reinforcement
The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus
Ex. Use umbrella and be dry
Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet
Punishment
Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus
Ex. Being burned by a hot stove
108