UPDATE ON CHILDHOOD DIABETES MELLITUS Abdelaziz Elamin MD, PhD, FRCPCH Professor of Child Health Sultan Qaboos University.
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Transcript UPDATE ON CHILDHOOD DIABETES MELLITUS Abdelaziz Elamin MD, PhD, FRCPCH Professor of Child Health Sultan Qaboos University.
UPDATE ON
CHILDHOOD DIABETES
MELLITUS
Abdelaziz Elamin
MD, PhD, FRCPCH
Professor of Child Health
Sultan Qaboos University
DEFINITION
The term diabetes mellitus describes
a metabolic disorder of multiple
etiologies characterized by chronic
hyperglycemia with disturbances of
carbohydrate, fat and protein
metabolism resulting from defects of
insulin secretion, insulin action or
both.
DIABETES EPIDEMIOLOGY
Diabetes is the most common
endocrine problem & is a major health
hazard worldwide.
Incidence of diabetes is alarmingly
increasing all over the globe.
Incidence of childhood diabetes range
between 3-50/100,000 worldwide; in
Oman it is estimated as 4/100000 per
year.
OLD CLASSIFICATION (1985)
Type 1, Insulin-dependent (IDDM)
Type 2, Non Insulin-dependent (NIDDM)
– obese
– non-obese
– MODY
IGT
Gestational Diabetes
WHO CLASSIFICATION 2000
Is based on etiology not on type
of treatment or age of the patient.
Type 1 Diabetes
(idiopathic or autoimmune b-cell
destruction)
Type 2 Diabetes
(defects in insulin secretion or action)
Other specific types
WHO CLASSIFICATION/2
Both type 1 & type 2 can be further
subdivided into:
Not insulin requiring
Insulin requiring for control
Insulin requiring for survival
Gestational diabetes is a separate entity
Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT)
indicates blood glucose levels between
normal & diabetic cut off points during
glucose tolerance test.
DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA
Fasting blood
glucose level
Diabetic
Plasma >7.0 mmol
Capillary >6.0 mmol
IGT
Plasma 6.0-6.9 mmol
Capillary 5.6-6.0 mmol
2 hours after
glucose load
(Plasma or capillary BS)
IGT
7.8-11.0
Diabetic level
> 11.1 (200 mg)
Types of Diabetes in Children
Type 1 diabetes mellitus accounts for
>90% of cases.
Type 2 diabetes is increasingly
recognized in children with
presentation like in adults.
Permanent neonatal diabetes
Transient neonatal diabetes
Maturity-onset diabetes of the young
Secondary diabetes e.g. in cystic
fibrosis or Cushing syndrome.
MODY
Usually affects older children &
adolescents
Not rare as previously considered
5 subclasses are identified, one
subclass has specific mode of
inheritance (AD)
Not associated with immunologic
or genetic markers
Insulin resistance is present
TRANSIENT NEONATAL DIABETES
Observed in both term & preterm
babies, but more common in preterm
Caused by immaturity of islet b-cells
Polyuria & dehydration are prominent,
but baby looks well & suck vigorously
Highly sensitive to insulin
Disappears in 4-6 weeks
PERMANENT NEONATAL DIABETES
A familial form of diabetes that appear
shortly after birth & continue for life
The usual genetic & immunologic
markers of Type 1 diabetes are absent
Insulin requiring, but ketosis resistant
Is often associated with other
congenital anomalies & syndromes e.g.
Wolcott-Rallison syndrome.
TYPE 1 DIABETES: ETIOLOGY
Type 1 diabetes mellitus is an
autoimmune disease.
It is triggered by environmental
factors in genetically susceptible
individuals.
Both humoral & cell-mediated
immunity are stimulated.
GENETIC FACTORS
Evidence of genetics is shown in
Ethnic differences
Familial clustering
High concordance rate in twins
Specific genetic markers
Higher incidence with genetic
syndromes or chromosomal
defects
AUTOIMMUNITY
Circulating antibodies against b-cells
and insulin.
Immunofluorescent antibodies &
lymphocyte infiltration around
pancreatic islet cells.
Evidence of immune system activation.
Circulating immune complexes with
high IgA & low interferon levels.
Association with other autoimmune
diseases.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE
Seasonal & geographical variation.
Migrants take on risk of new home.
Evidence for rapid temporal changes.
Suspicion of environmental agents
causing disease which is confirmed by
case-control experimental animal
studies.
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSPECTS
Viruses
Coxaschie B
Mumps
Rubella
Reoviruses
Nutrition & dietary factors
Cow’s milk protein
Contaminated sea food
OTHER MODIFYING FACTORS
The counter-regulatory hormones:
glucagon
cortisol,
catecholamines
thyroxin,
GH & somatostatin
sex hormones
Emotional stress
ETIOLOGIC MODEL
The etiologic model of type 1
diabetes resembles that of
Rheumatic fever.
Rheumatic fever was prevented by
elimination of the triggering environ.
factor (b-streptococci).
Similarly type 1 diabetes may be
prevented by controlling the
triggering factors in high risk
persons.
CLINICAL PRESENTATIONS
Classical symptom triad:
polyuria, polydipsia and weight
loss
DKA
Accidental diagnosis
Anorexia nervosa like illness
DIAGNOSIS
In symptomatic children a random
plasma glucose >11 mmol
(200 mg) is diagnostic.
A modified OGTT (fasting & 2h)
may be needed in asymptomatic
children with hyperglycemia if the
cause is not obvious.
Remember: acute infections in
young non-diabetic children can
cause hyperglycemia without
ketoacidosis.
NATURAL HISTORY
Diagnosis & initiation of insulin
Period of metabolic recovery
Honeymoon phase
State of total insulin
dependency
METABOLIC RECOVERY
During metabolic recovery the patient may
Develop one or more of the following:
• Hepatomegaly
• Peripheral edema
• Loss of hair
• Problem with visual acuity
These are caused by deposition of
glycogen & metabolic re-balance.
HONEYMOON PERIOD
Due to b-cell reserve optimal
function & initiation of insulin
therapy.
Leads to normal blood glucose
level without exogenous insulin.
Observed in 50-60% of newly
diagnosed patients & it can last up
to one year but it always ends.
Can confuse patients & parents if
not educated about it early.
COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES
Acute:
DKA
Hypoglycemia
Late-onset:
Retinopathy
Neuropathy
Nephropathy
Ischemic heart disease & stroke
TREATMENT GOALS
Prevent death & alleviate symptoms
Achieve biochemical control
Maintain growth & development
Prevent acute complications
Prevent or delay late-onset
complications
TREATMENT ELEMENTS
Education
Insulin therapy
Diet and meal planning
Monitoring
HbA1c every 2-months
Home regular BG monitoring
Home urine ketones tests when
indicated
EDUCATION
Educate child & care givers about:
Diabetes
Insulin
Life-saving skills
Recognition of Hypo & DKA
Meal plan
Sick-day management
INSULIN
A polypeptide made of 2 b-chains.
Discovered by Bants & Best in 1921.
Animal types (porcine & bovine) were
used before the introduction of humanlike insulin (DNA-recombinant types).
Recently more potent insulin analogs
are produced by changing aminoacid
sequence.
FUNCTION OF INSULIN
Insulin being an anabolic
hormone stimulates protein &
fatty acids synthesis.
Insulin decreases blood sugar
1. By inhibiting hepatic glycogenolysis
and gluconeogenesis.
2. By stimulating glucose uptake,
utilization & storage by the liver,
muscles & adipose tissue.
TYPES OF INSULIN
Short acting (neutral, soluble, regular)
Peak 2-3 hours & duration up to 8 hours
Intermediate acting
Isophane (peak 6-8 h & duration 16-24 h)
Biphasic (peak 4-6 h & duration 12-20 h)
Semilente (peak 5-7 h & duration 12-18 h)
Long acting (lente, ultralente & PZI)
Peak 8-14 h & duration 20-36 h
INSULIN CONCENTRATIONS
Insulin is available in different
concentrations 40, 80 & 100 Unit/ml.
WHO now recommends U 100 to be the
only used insulin to prevent confusion.
Special preparation for infusion pumps
is soluble insulin 500 U/ml.
INSULIN REGIMENS
Twice daily: either NPH alone or
NPH+SI.
Thrice daily: SI before each meal
and NPH only before dinner.
Intensive 4 times/day: SI before
meals + NPH or Glargine at bed
time.
Continuous s/c infusion using
pumps loaded with SI.
INSULIN ANALOGS
Ultra short acting
Insulin Lispro
Insulin Aspart
Long acting without peak action
to simulate normal basal insulin
Glargine
NEW INSULIN PREPARATIONS
Inhaled insulin proved to be
effective & will be available within
2 years.
Nasal insulin was not successful
because of variable nasal
absorption.
Oral insulin preparations are
under trials.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF INSULIN
Hypoglycemia
Lipoatrophy
Lipohypertrophy
Obesity
Insulin allergy
Insulin antibodies
Insulin induced edema
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
Non-availability of insulin in poor
countries
injection sites & technique
Insulin storage & transfer
Mixing insulin preparations
Insulin & school hours
Adjusting insulin dose at home
Sick-day management
Recognition & Rx of hypo at home
DIET REGULATION
Regular meal plans with calorie
exchange options are encouraged.
50-60% of required energy to be
obtained from complex carbohydrates.
Distribute carbohydrate load evenly
during the day preferably 3 meals & 2
snacks with avoidance of simple
sugars.
Encouraged low salt, low saturated fats
and high fiber diet.
EXERCISE
Decreases insulin requirement in
diabetic subjects by increasing
both sensitivity of muscle cells to
insulin & glucose utilization.
It can precipitate hypoglycemia in
the unprepared diabetic patient.
It may worsen pre-existing
diabetic retinopathy.
MONITORING
Compliance (check records)
HBG tests
HbA1 every 2 months
Insulin & meal plan
Growth & development
Well being & life style
School & hobbies
ADVANCES IN MONITORING
Smaller & accurate meters for
intermittent BG monitoring
Glucowatch continuous monitoring
using reverse iontophoresis to
measure interstitial fluid glucose
every 20 minutes
Glucosensor that measures s/c
capillary BG every 5 minutes
Implantable sensor with high & low
BG alarm
ADVANCES IN MANAGEMENT
Better understanding of diabetes
allows more rational approach to
therapy.
Primary prevention could be
possible if the triggering factors are
identified.
The DCCT studies proves beyond
doubt that chronic diabetic
complication can be controlled or
prevented by strict glycemic control.
TREATMENT MADE EASY
Insulin pens & new delivery
products
Handy insulin pumps
fine micro needles
Simple accurate glucometers
Free educational material
computer programs for
comprehensive management &
monitoring
TELECARE SYSTEMS
IT has improved diabetes care
Internet sites for education &
support
Web-based systems for telecare
are now available. The patient
feeds his HBGM data and get the
physician, nurse & dietician advice
on the required modification to
diet & insulin treatment.
PITFALLS OF MANAGEMENT
Delayed diagnosis of IDDM
The honey-moon period
Detection & treatment of NIDDY
Problems with diagnosis &
treatment of DKA & hypoglycemia
Somogi’s effect (dawn
phenomenon) may go
unrecognized.
FUTURE PROMISES
The cure for IDDM is successful islet cell
transplantation, which will be available
in the near future.
Primary prevention by a vaccine or drug
will be offered to at risk subjects
identified by genetic studies.
Gene modulation therapy for
susceptible subjects is a promising
preventive measure.
Pancreas & Islet Cell Transplantation
Pancreas transplants are usually
given to diabetics with end stage
renal disease.
Islet cell transplants, the ultimate
treatment of type 1 diabetes is
under trial in many centers in the
US & Europe with encouraging
results but graft rejection &
recurrence of autoimmunity are
serious limitations.
IMMUNE MODULATION
Immunosuppressive therapy for
Newly diagnosed
Prolonged the honey moon
For high risk children
Immune modulating drugs
Nicotinamide
mycophenolate
GENE THERAPY
Blocks the immunologic attack
against islet-cells by DNAplasmids encoding self antigen.
Gene encode cytokine inhibitors.
Modifying gene expressed isletcell antigens like GAD.
PREDICTION OF DIABETES
Sensitive & specific immunologic
markers
GAD Antibodies
GLIMA antibodies
IA-2 antibodies
Sensitive genetic markers
• HLA haplotypes
• DQ molecular markers
PREVENTION OF DIABETES
Primary prevention
• Identification of diabetes gene
• Tampering with the immune system
• Elimination of environmental factor
Secondary prevention
• Immunosuppressive therapy
Tertiary prevention
• Tight metabolic control & good
monitoring
Dreams are the seedlings
of realities