Gender Issues

Varying perspectives on what it means to be a male or female

Big Confusing Questions

 What does it mean to be a male or female in our society?

 Are the behavioral preferences of males and females based on biology or culture?

 Do our society’s attitudes and expectations hurt or help our sexual relations?

Definitions

 SEX – biological maleness or femaleness genetic – determined by chromosomes anatomical – obvious physical differences between males and females

 Gender – psychological aspects of maleness or

femaleness

 Gender Identity – the subjective sense of being either

male or female

 What sex you think you are, or really should be.

 Gender Role – attitudes and behaviors considered

appropriate in a specific culture for people of a particular sex

 Expectations we should fulfill  Masculine or Feminine  Vary widely from culture to culture but rapidly evolving

Forming a Gender Identity

 Does it simply flow from anatomy?

For some of us, it’s not always that easy

 For all of us, it all starts in our mother’s womb, at the instant of conception, as prenatally we begin the tortuous path of sexual differentiation.

Chromosomal Influences

 We receive 23 chromosomes from each parent.

 Of these, 22 pairs are identical in structure.

 The 23 rd pair, the sex chromosomes, determines whether we are genetically male or female.

More Chromosomes

    If we receive an

X

female

(XX).

from both parents, we will be A y from our father, and we are male (

Xy).

One gene on the

y

(SRY) leads to testes development.

Perhaps one gene on

X

(DSS) leads to the development of female characteristics. If so, we are not inherently female.

The Gonadal Stage

 Males and females have identical gonads (reproductive organs) until about 6 weeks after conception when SRY or DSS spur their development  Once the testes or ovaries become functional their release of hormones controls further differentiation

The Crucial Role of Hormones

 The gonads release the sex hormones into the blood stream  Ovaries produce: 1) estrogen a hormone which develops female sexual characteristics and regulates menstruation, as do 2) progestational compounds

 Testes release androgens which promote the

development of male genitals and secondary sexual characteristics

 Another hormone released by the testes, testosterone, also promotes sexual motivation  Both males and females produce the sex hormones typically associated with the other (testosterone and estrogen) but in much smaller quantities

Internal reproductive structures - males

 At about 8 weeks after conception: Males – androgens stimulate the woffian ducts to develop into the “plumbing” which will allow semen creation and transmission another hormone causes the mullerian duct system to vanish

Female reproductive organs



Without the influence of androgen, mullerian

ducts develop into female structures and the woffian duct system fades into nothingness

External reproductive structures

 A product of testosterone – DHT – causes portions of the undifferentiated sex organs to fuse and form the scrotum and penis  Without DHT this fusion does not take place and the clitoris, labia minora, and labia majora form  By the 12 th apparent week, it’s all done and our sex is

Brain Differentiation

 For males, in the Hypothalamus, testosterone exposure leads to insensitivity to the effects of estrogen, preventing the establishment of the menstrual cycle at puberty  Also, some of its regions are much larger in heterosexual males than females

The Cerebral Cortex

 Are differences between the sexes on verbal and spatial cognitive skills caused by differences in their cerebral cortexes?

 Men appear to often rely on just one hemisphere.  Women have a thicker corpus callosum facilitating the use of both hemispheres

But there’s more

 Are there other reasons why men perform better on spatial tasks while women shine in verbal measures?

The power of Expectations

 Recent research highlights the importance of psychosocial, not biological, influences.

 Social Expectations – girls do just as well as boys initially in science and math, but falter in high school.

 Where they discouraged ?

Changing Expectations – by the late 90’s, the gap had largely vanished.

Atypical Differentiation

 How, and why, do things go awry?

 Hermaphrodites/Intersexed – people who

possess biological attributes of both sexes

 Very few have both ovaries and testes, most have ambiguous anatomy but their gonads match their chromosomes and they are called pseudo

hermaphrodites

Problems at the Chromosomal Level



Turner’s Syndrome

  Just one sex chromosome – X Left with 45 rather than 46  Normal external female genitals but little or no evidence of ovaries/hormones  Despite that, feminine in interests and behavior  1 of 2000 births

Faulty Chromosomes cont.



Klinefelter’s Syndrome

  XXy occurs in 1 of 500 births Anatomically male  Presence of extra X stops development of male structures, resulting in sterility  No interest in sex, no testosterone  Tall, “rounded”, feminine, but content as males

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome

 An otherwise normal male, unaffected by prenatal exposure to androgen  Results in female genitals, including a shallow, but nonfunctional vagina  Raised as girls, they assume a female gender identity and thrive as females

Fetally Androgenized Females

 Chromosomally normal females exposed to excessive androgens  At birth genitals appear to be male  “Corrected” by minor surgery, most still reject a female gender identity with some assuming a male gender identity and behavior

DHT-Lacking Males

 Males who cannot produce crucial DHT  Result – female appearing external genitals, at least initially  Typically raised as girls, they suddenly sprout into males at puberty  In one study, 16 of 18 cast off their female gender identity and happily assumed male sex roles

The Puzzle of Gender Identity

 Why do we think we belong to one sex, even though our anatomy tells us differently?

 Evidence, both cross-cultural, and otherwise, points to the importance of social-learning

forces.

Social-Learning Influences

 Familial expectations (blue room vs. pink room) start before birth  Familial perceptions/interpretations vary  Familial responses vary similarly  By 3, most of us have a firm gender identity, and reinforcement momentum builds as kids mimic same-sex parent

Cross-Cultural Evidence

 Margaret Mead’s ground-breaking studies  In Mundugumor, both sexes are aggressive, insensitive – Masculine ?

 In Arapesh, both sexes are nurturing and gentle – Feminine?

 In Tchambuli, we find a reversal of our customary sex roles  Therefore, it’s more culture than biology

Are We Sexually Neutral at Birth?

 In the 1960’s, Dr. John Money at John Hopkins thought so  Intersexed infants were surgically “fixed” to have female genitals, regardless of their chromosomal sex  It’s easier to make a functional vagina than a penis  Initially, this approach seemed to work

Chromosomes Win Out

 As these individuals matured, some of the children assigned a sex at odds with their chromosomes rejected their expected gender identity 

“The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl”

 Since the social learning model obviously has its limits, now even John Money endorses an

interactional model

Transsexualism & Transgenderism

 Transsexual (TS) – someone whose gender identity is

opposite to their biological sex

 TSs feel that their biological sex is mistaken. Many seek sex-reassignment, many do not.

 Transgendered (TG) – people whose appearance and/or behaviors do not match traditional gender roles.

 TGs behave in a way that flouts society’s expectations. Often, they cross-dress.  TGs do not seek sexual reassignment – surgery.

Gender Dysphoria



Some, but not all, of TSs and TGs experience gender dysphoria – unhappiness

with their biological sex or expected sex role.

Gender Identity/Orientation

 Sexual Orientation – the sex we are emotionally

and physically attracted to

 Gender Identity – the sex we believe we belong to,

even despite biology

 Most TSs are attracted/oriented to those who share (pre-surgery) their anatomy  But some male to female TSs prefer females

Gender-Identity Disorder

 According to DSM IV TR, to fit the Gender Identity Disorder “tag”, individuals must: 1) have pervasive cross-gender beliefs, 2) dysphoria 3) lack a physical intersex condition, & 4) show great distress and problems functioning in society and at work

Transsexuals: Why?

 Most have no problems with chromosomes or anatomy  90% lack any hint of mental illness  While at first 75% were male, this gap has narrowed  Most develop their desire to change sexes in childhood 

Dating!

Fine, But Why?

 We still don’t know, two theories exist.

 Hormonal – prenatal exposure to inappropriate levels alters brain differentiation – But most are normal.

 Social Learning – children are conditioned to behave in a manner consistent with the other sex and reinforced for mimicking other sex parent.

OK(?) What Do We Do?

 Perhaps psychotherapy can alleviate the need for reassignment surgery. But often it can’t, leaving no choice but:  SEX-REASSIGNMENT SURGERY

 1) Interviews

PROTOCOL

 2) Living the life – for a year or longer  3) Hormone therapy – reverse secondary sexual characteristics, and, finally,

The Surgery

 Works better for male to female switch  Penis tissue becomes the vagina  Some can even experience arousal and orgasm  Additional surgery can change the pitch of their voice

Female to Male

 Breasts, uterus, ovaries removed  Vagina sealed, penis constructed – but no erection

from sexual arousal

 Does it work?  Most report a significant increase in their overall adjustment to life

Cultural Gender Roles

 Men – assertive, logical, competitive, competent  Women – submissive, warm, nurturing, emotional  Most psychologists argue that our gender roles arise from socialization – our learning histories,

through which we accept our society’s expectations for our behavior

The Socialization of Sex Roles

• Who and what shapes our assumed sex roles?

• Parents and girls

–

often have differing expectations for, and treatment of, boys Encourage or discourage certain toys “gender appropriate” play • But today sports are pushed for both

Other Socializing Forces

• Peers • Voluntarily segregation, even in pre-school • Reinforces sex-typing in play • Influence even increases in adolescence • Otherwise face

social ridicule

• Often produces

stereotyping



Schools & Textbooks

 From the 70’s to the early 90’s, girls and boys were treated quite differently  Boys were encouraged to be assertive, received more tolerance when “bad”, more attention, help and praise  Girls praised for “neatness” not substance, encouraged to be dependent and to avoid math

and sciences

 Recently, these attitudes have shifted



Television

 Also perpetuates gender stereotypes  Women are both underrepresented and presented stereotypically  Hope springs from The Wild Thornberrys, Alias,

and Judging Amy

 Marketing concerns should push this positive trend since women both watch and buy more

   

Religion

Promotes males as superior – God, Pope, Bishop, Priest, etc.

Women portrayed as Eve, Virgin Mary Encouraged to model roles such as educators, nurses, charity workers  Recently, many denominations have ordained women ministers and moved to eliminate masculine metaphors for God

Gender-Role Assumptions

 Women as undersexed, mean as over women have been told that they should not desire or enjoy sex men should pursue every chance unfairly limits both

More Assumptions

 Men initiate, women respond Men approach, “ask out”, “pick up”, “make the move” Women respond with submission or rejection  Causes men to feel pressure and anxiety  Women may wish to initiate but feel pressure

Finally

 Men as unemotional  Women as nurturing  Do these assumptions still prevail?