Transcript Presentation Slides for Air Pollution and Global Warming: History, Science, and Solutions Chapter 8: International Regulation of Urban Smog Since the 1940s By Mark Z.

Presentation Slides for
Air Pollution and Global Warming:
History, Science, and Solutions
Chapter 8: International Regulation of Urban Smog
Since the 1940s
By Mark Z. Jacobson
Cambridge University Press (2012)
Last update: February 13, 2012
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internet and are provided to facilitate their display during course instruction.
Permissions for publication of photographs must be requested from individual
copyright holders. The source of each photograph is given below the figure and/or in
the back of the textbook.
Air Pollution Review 1940s, 1950s
1940s: Smog severe in Los Angeles
1947: Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District forms
1948: Donora, Pennsylvania smog disaster
1949: National symposium on air pollution in Los Angeles
1951: Oregon approves agency to control air pollution
1952: Air pollution disaster in London
mid-1950s: Ozone levels in Los Angeles reach 0.65 ppmv
1955: Eisenhower asks Congress to examine air pollution
Air Pollution Laws 1950s
U.S. Air Pollution Control Act of 1955
Federal technical assistance to state air pollution control
Funding of Public Health Service for studies of air pollution
Did not impose regulations on air pollution
Delegated regulation to state and local level
English Clean Air Act of 1956
Controlled household, industrial dark smoke emission in London
No control of sulfur dioxide
Smokeless zones in London.
Relocation of many power plants to rural areas
U. S. Air Pollution Laws
1959
California Motor Vehicle Control
Board set first auto emission
standard worldwide.
1963 model cars required to
reroute crankcase hydrocarbon
emissions back to manifold for
reburning.
1960 NOx control device
1959 Corvette
Awesomecarauctions.com
aqmd.gov
1962
New York City, 1963
U. S. Air Pollution Laws
Clear Air Act of 1963
• Gave federal government authority
to regulate interstate pollution
• Emission standards for stationary
sources (power plants, steel)
• No automobile controls
www.ametsco.org
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Control Act of 1965
First regulation of automobiles at federal
level
Emission standards to reduce tailpipe HCs
72%, CO(g) 56%
For 1968 model cars; patterned after
California for 1966 cars
More than half of 1968 and 1969 cars did
not meet standard
Dipity.s3.amazonaws.com
Air Quality Act of 1967
U.S. divided into Air Quality Control Regions (AQCR)
Required publication of Air Quality Criteria (AQC) reports
Science reports about effects of pollutants on health/welfare
Provide suggestions about acceptable levels of pollution
States set their own standards based on AQC reports
State Implementation Plans (SIP)
State plan for regulation submitted to federal government
If no state enforcement, federal government could sue state
EPA Regions
www.croll.com
California Air Districts
www.ellsworth.com
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970
Creation of U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Primary: to protect public health (e.g., asthmatics, elderly)
Secondary: to protect public welfare (e.g., visibility, buildings)
Criteria Air Pollutants
Originally: CO(g), NO2(g), SO2(g), TSP, HCs, oxidants
Lead added in 1976
Oxidants change to O3(g) in 1979
HCs removed in 1983
TSP changed to PM10; PM2.5 added in 1997
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970
Attainment areas
Regions where primary standards met
Nonattainment areas
Regions where primary standards were not met
New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)
Set by USEPA to limit emission from new stationary sources
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Pollutants (NESHAPS)
For pollutants causing mortality, severe illness
Initially, for, asbestos, beryllium, mercury. List expanded in 1984
Congressional control of automobile emissions
Required 90% reduction HCs, CO(g) by 1975 and NOx by 1976
Catalytic Converter
1975: Single-bed catalyst
Converts CO(g) and HCs to CO2(g)
1976: Duel-bed catalyst
Additional bed to convert NOx(g) to N2(g)
1979: Three-way catalyst
Converts CO(g), HCs, NOx(g) in single bed
Exhaust gas travels for 50 milliseconds over the metals
platinum/palladium or platinum/rhodium, which are spread over
ceramic or metallic honeycombs to increase surface area
Catalytic converter --> significant emission reductions
CAFE Standards
1975: Energy Policy Conservation Act
Gave NHTSA right to set Corporate Average Fuel Economy
Standards for cars and light trucks (<3900 kg) & SUVs < 4500 kg
1978
First CAFE standard for passenger vehicles 18 mpg
1990-2010
27.5 mpg
2011
30.2 mpg
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977
Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) in areas already under
attainment. Three classes of regions designated:
Class I: Pristine areas (parks, wilderness) no new sources
Class II: Moderate changes allowed but regulations desired
Class III: Major growth allowed if NAAQS not exceeded
PSD permit needed for growth in region allowing growth
New source must use Best Available Control Technology (BACT)
Computer modeling mandated to check whether new pollution sources
might result in standard exceedence
Control of CFCs
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
1990: 96 cities still in violation of ozone NAAQS
--> nonattainment areas divided into six categories
“Extreme:” Los Angeles
“Severe:” Baltimore, New York
“Severe:” Chicago, Houston
New sources in nonattainment areas must achieve
Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate (LAER) by adopting
Reasonably Achievable Control Technology (RACT)
Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)
Emission limits for 189 toxic chemicals using Maximum
Achievable Control Technologies (MACTs)
More control of CFCs
Clean Air Act Revision of 1997
Change in ozone standard
0.08 ppmv over 8-hour average instead of
0.12 ppmv over 1-hour average
Addition of PM2.5 standard
California Waiver
CAAA70 states that the U.S. EPA Administrator has authority
to set and revise
“…standards applicable to the emission of any pollutant from
any class or classes of new motor vehicles or new motor
vehicle engines, which in his judgment cause, or
contribute to, air pollution which may reasonably be
anticipated to endanger public health or welfare.”
(Section 202(a)(1)”
April, 2007. Supreme Court in Mass v. EPA decided that this
clause gave the EPA Administrator authority to decide
whether to regulate carbon dioxide based on health
impacts.
U.S. Federal Emission Standards
for Light-Duty Vehicles
HCs
Year
(g/mi)
1968-70
3.2
1971-2
4.6
1972
3.4
1973-4
3.4
1975-6
1.5
1977-9
1.5
1980
0.41
1981
0.41
1982-6
0.41
1987-93
0.41
1994-2003 0.31
2004-on
0.09
2004 SULEV 0.01
2004 ZEV
0.0
CO
(g/mi)
33
47
39
39
15
15
7.0
3.4
3.4
3.4
4.2
4.2
1.0
0.0
NOx
(g/mi)
-4.0
-3.0
3.1
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.07
0.02
0.0
Pb
(g/gal)
-----0.8
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0
0
0.0
PM
(g/mi)
--------0.6
0.2
0.10
0.01 (US fleet avg.)
0.01 California & NE
0.0
California & NE
U.S. Ambient Ozone Standards
Health Standard Level
Federal 8-hr
Federal 1-hr
Health advisory 1-hr
Stage 1 smog alert 1-hr
Stage 2 smog alert 1-hr
Stage 3 smog alert 1-hr
Ozone
Mixing Ratio (ppbv)
75
120
150
200
350
500
Table 8.3
U.S. and European Union (E.U.)
Ambient Air Quality Standards 2011
Pollutant
Ozone 8-hr average (ppbv)
Carbon monoxide 8-hr avg. (ppmv)
Nitrogen dioxide 1-hr avg. (ppbv)
Sulfur dioxide 1-hr avg. (ppmv)
PM2.5 annual avg. (ug/m3 )
PM10 annual avg. (ug/m3 )
U.S.
75
9
100
0.075
15
20
E.U.
60
9
105
0.13
25
40
Tables 8.2, 8.6
300
0.5
Basin maximum
250
0.25
200
Fed. 8-hr
150
100
50
H.A.
Stage 2 Stage 1
0
Basin maximum (ppmv)
Days of exceedences per year
Days per Year that Ozone in Los
Angeles Exceeded Given Standard
0
1975
1985
1995
Year
2005
Figure 8.2, SCAQMD
3
Maximum hourly O (g) (ppmv)
Maximum Ozone Trend by District
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
South Coast
North Central Coast
S.F. Bay Area
San Joaquin Valley
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
Figure 8.3, CARB (2011)
Maximum PM2.5 Trend by District
Figure 8.3, CARB (2011)
Avg. California mixing ratio (ppbv)
California Average Organic Gases
Since 1990
10
Formaldehyde
Toluene
1
Acetaldehyde
Benzene
1,3-butadiene
m/p-xylene
0.1
1990
1995
2000
Year
2005
2010
Figure 8.4, CARB (2011)
U.S. Air Quality Trends 1980-2009
Figure 8.1, USEPA (2011)
U.S. Air Quality Trends 1980-2009
14
2
10
8
6
2.5
1.5
1
Pb(s)
4
0.5
3
PM
2.5
3
PM
Pb(s) (mg/m )
(mg/m )
12
2
0
1980
1990
2000
b) Year
0
2010
Figure 8.1, USEPA (2011)
Visual Range Trends 30 U.S.
National Parks
Figure 8.5
Visibility Trends, Europe
Figure 8.5, Stjern et al. (2011)
Air Pollution Regulations
Versus Economy
1980-2009
U.S. GDP per capita increased from $12,200 to $46,500 (+280%)
Avg. max ozone decreased from 101 ppbv to 69 ppbv (-31%)
Inventions from air pollution regulation
Control devices
Engine and fuel improvements
Renewable energy technologies
Jobs from air pollution regulation
Renewable energy industry; control device industry, engine and
fuels industries, pollution/climate science industry,
supercomputer industry, regulatory bodies
Worldwide Mortality From
Pollution, Some Other Sources
World Health Organization (2002)
Indoor air pollution
1.62 million deaths/year
Outdoor air pollution
0.80
Climate change
0.15 (disease, heat stress)
Tobacco smoke
4.91
Water pollution
1.73
Malnutrition
3.75
High blood pressure
7.14
European Union Laws
Directive
Pollution regulation binding on all member nations but
takes into account needs of specific country
Regulation
Law applied uniformly to all member nations
Decision
Direction for specific member nation
Norilsk, Russia
http://www.worldinterestingfacts.com/infrastructure/top-10-most-polluted-cities-in-the-world.html
Tianying, China
http://www.worldinterestingfacts.com/infrastructure/top-10-most-polluted-cities-in-the-world.html
Sukinda, India
http://www.worldinterestingfacts.com/infrastructure/top-10-most-polluted-cities-in-the-world.html
Linfen, China
http://www.worldinterestingfacts.com/infrastructure/top-10-most-polluted-cities-in-the-world.html
Moscow, Moscow, St. Petersburg
V. Zhuravlev/A. Lebedev, S. Gordeev/Dreamstime.com
Zaporozhve, Ukraine (Aug. 7, 2010)
K. Moskalenko/Dreamstime.com
Cairo (Feb. 15, 2009)
Jakezc/Dreamstime.com
Calcutta and New Delhi
Samrat35/Digitalfestival/Dreamstime.com
Guangzhou, China
HSC/Dreamstime.com
Beijing (August, 2007)
Andrew Chang
Five Days in Beijing
Andrew Chang and Kimberly Ong
Asian Brown Cloud
NASA/GeoEye
Taipei (July 12, 2009)
C. Rawlins/Dreamstime
Bangkok (March 11, 2010)
A.A. Totah/Dreamstime
Mexico City
A. Fagundes/Dreamstime
Sugarcane Field Burn, Brazil (April,
2009)
S. Van Tonder/Dreamstime