CHAPTER THREE

Middle and South America

Latin American Landscapes Sierra Madre, Mexico Andes, Chile Yucatan, Mexico Pampas, Argentina Amazon, Brazil Rio De Janeiro, Brazil

I. THE GEOGRAPHIC SETTING

► ► ► ► ► ► ► pre-Columbian civilizations cultural diversity wide variation in latitudes and altitudes colonial influences economic disparity outside influences and the Monroe Doctrine terminology: Mesoamerica; Antilles; Central-, Middle-, South- and Latin America

Indigenous Realities

Pollution in Ecuador

Physical Patterns

►

Landforms

 Highlands ► One continuous belt of mountains from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego (why?) ► ► ► Importance of plate tectonics (i.e. subduction zones) Earthquakes and volcanoes as common occurrence (e.g. strong earthquake of 2010 in Haiti) Many Caribbean islands are volcanic in origin

Plate Tectonics

(revisit discussion in Chapter 1)

Soufrière Volcano on Montserrat

Figure 3.4

Physical Patterns

► Lowlands    Stretch from the Andes to the Atlantic Ocean Amazon Basin: largest feature, drained by Amazon River system ► 20% of world’s fresh water ► World’s largest expanse of rainforest ► rich biodiversity Amazon Basin home to some of the last relatively undisturbed indigenous people

The Amazon Lowlands

Figure 3.5

Layne Kennedy/CORBIS

Physical Patterns

► Variations in Climate  Temperature-Altitude Zones ► Tierra caliente : hot; tropical rain forests thrive; up to 3000 feet.

► Tierra templada : temperate; year-round spring like climate; 3000-6500 feet ► Tierra fria : cool; midlatitude crops; population centers; 6500-12,000 feet ► Tierra helada : frozen; some cultivation; snow and glaciers; above 12,000 feet

Temperature-Altitude Zones

Figure 3.7

Physical Patterns

► Variations in Precipitation  Trade winds: come in from Atlantic, bringing seasonal rains at the equator ► Hurricanes during summer and fall  Winds from Pacific blocked by Andes ► Also, cold Peru Current doesn’t hold moisture ► When changing direction “El Niño” ► Resulting climate zones in Latin America due to precipitation and temperature ranges

Climate Zones

Figure 3.6

Amazon Atacama Tierra del Fuego

El Niño

Environmental Issues

► Human settlement always had consequences for the environment ► Today, more severe because of growth in:    Population Per capita domestic consumption of resources Exports of resources ► Tropical Deforestation , Climate Change & Globilization

Snapshots of Human Impact in Latin America

Energy Consumption Patterns World Wide (revisit discussion in Chapter 1)

Human Impacts on Middle and South America

Figure 3.32

Environmental Issues

► ► Tropical Forestlands in the Global Economy  Loss of 5% of remaining rainforest every year?

    Threats: logging of hardwoods, clearing for agriculture or mining Promoted by Brazil’s government (jobs, cash crops, moving people to rural areas) Funded by Asian investors (already depleted their own forests) Increasing regulation leads to illegal logging Implications for global warming  Amazon = “Lungs of the World”

Environmental Issues

Is it worth it? From tropical wood and cattle ranches to soy beans and homesteads.

Environmental Issues

► Environ. Protection & Economic Development   Past: Governments argued that environmental regulation too expensive Present: New focus on sustainable development ► Eco-tourism: natural and cultural experiences in unfamiliar environments  Most rapidly growing segment of tourism

Human Patterns Over Time

► The Peopling of Middle and South America  Coming from Asia and moving across North America as early as 25,000 years ago     Reached Tierra del Fuego ~ 13,000 years ago 50-100 million people by 1492 in advanced societies ► Irrigation, terracing, urban sewers, shifting cultivation Aztecs: Highly organized empire of Mexico ► Higher standard of living than Europe Incas: Largest empire of Americas, on west coast of South America

Incan Structures

Figure 3.8

Human Patterns Over Time

► European Conquest  Within 40 years of Columbus, all population centers in region subjugated ► Hernando Cortez (Aztecs) and Francisco Pizarro (Incas)    Superior military technology Vulnerability to disease ► Smallpox, measles Within 150 years, total population of Americas reduced by 90% ► Beginning of slave trade

Spanish and Portuguese Trade Routes, circa 1600

Figure 3.10

Treaty of Tordesillas: 46 0 W longitude

Human Patterns Over Time

► A Global Exchange of Crops and Animals    European crops: rice, sugarcane, bananas, citrus, melons, onions, apples, wheat, barley, and oats American crops: potatoes, manioc (cassava), corn, peanuts, cacao, peppers, pineapples, and tomatoes European animals: sheep, goats, oxen, cattle, donkeys, horses, and mules

Colonial Heritage of Middle and South America

Figure 3.11

II. CURRENT GEOGRAPHIC ISSUES

► The Legacy of Underdevelopment  Today > 30% of the people lack land, education, and food/shelter; a small elite class is very wealthy ► Mercantilism: export-based economy, based on resource extraction from colonies ► Anti-colonial revolts replaced far-away elites with local ones (creoles and mestizos) ► Economies largely remain oriented to exporting of resources (or primary sector!) ► This colonial legacy carries on until today, and in part because we have benefited from it!

Economic and Political Issues

► Power and wealth in the region still concentrated in the hands of local elites ► Concentration remains so today despite:  Economic modernization  Urbanization ► Assumption of huge government debts during 1970s and 1980s  Significance of oil crisis   SAPs as condition to get IMF funds Cuts in government programs / taxes on the poor

Economic and Political Issues

► ► ► Not as poor as other regions (sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia)   Widest income disparity in the world Wide disparity inhibits development, political stability  On average >30% live in poverty Globalization has mainly benefited urban middle class and elites Why does poverty matter from a Christian point of view?

 Read The Christian Paradox

Income Disparity

Perspectives on Poverty: Moral Perspective? Economic Perspective? Political Perspective?

Economic and Political Issues

► 3 Phases of Economic Development    Early Extractive Phase ► Colonialism, haciendas, plantations Import Substitution Industrialization Phase ► Nationalization of industry; land reform Structural Adjustment Phase ► Free Trade Zones, maquiladoras, EPZs ► Voter backlash against SAPs in the 1990s

Investing in Latin America

Economic and Political Issues

► The Informal Economy    Causes: Canceled subsidies; reduced government jobs; recession; underemployment; losses in real wages Positive effects: Workers support their families; lower prices; conservation of resources; promotes entrepreneurialism Negative effects: Workers pay bribes instead of taxes; no recourse to law ► The Role of Remittances

Economic and Political Issues

► Regional Trade and Free Trade Agreements  NAFTA: U.S., Mexico, Canada  UNASUR: 12 members / > 400 million people ► Mixed record of free trade: increases income inequality; small farmers cannot compete; but growth of maquiladora sector ► The Fair Trade Movement

How Will They be Able to Compete?

What’s “Fair” about “Fair Trade”?

WTO Protest in Cancún

Figure 3.23

Reuters/Juan Carlos Ulate AW/GN

Economic and Political Issues

► Food Production and Contested Space   Large-scale, absentee-owned, export-oriented agriculture promoted ► Smaller farmers are often squeezed out Resistance by rural farmers ► Zapatistas in Mexico in 1994 (resistance to NAFTA) ► Movement of Landless Rural Workers in Brazil   Brazil: 65% of the land owned by 2% of the population 2 million farmers forced off their land; millions of acres unused  250,000 farmers have gained titles to land with popular support (> 70% of Brazilian population support this movement)

Land Use in Latin America

Economic and Political Issues

► Power, Politics & Democratization: 3 Scenarios   Guatemala (1954); Chile (1973); Bolivia (2006) What’s different today when compared to the 50s and 70s?

► Is Democracy Rising?

  Almost all countries in the region have democratically elected governments Some threatened with coups d’état ► Policies unpopular with powerful elites / United States   ► Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Bolivia Democracy fragile and not very transparent What role did we once play? What’s the situation today?

Democratization and Conflict in Latin America

Business Interests vs. Human Rights?

Guatemala (Arbenz Guzman), El Salvador (Oscar Romero), Chile (Salvador Allende vs. Augusto Pinochet & the “Caravan of Death”), Argentina (Juan Peron vs. military junta ) The Oesterheld family: Marina (18), Beatriz (19), Diana (21), Estela (25), Hector (58) disappeared in 1977-78 (Elsa passed away in June 2015)

Economic and Political Issues

► U.S. Involvement in the Region’s Politics  Monroe Doctrine: protecting American business and political interests?

► U.S. interventions in Cuba, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Chile, Panama, and Venezuela ► Political Impacts of Information Technology   Used by activists to organize (e.g. Zapatistas) More “online and wired” than many regions ► Especially countries like Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Jamaica, Colombia and Brazil

Role of the Internet

Meet Two Peace Nobel Prize Winners Rigoberta Menchu (1992) Guatemala human rights activist Oscar Arias (1987) Costa Rica, President 1986-1990, 2006 - 2010

Also Unusual: The First Indigenous President in South America since 2006

Figure 3.26

Economic and Political Issues

► Political corruption  Bribes widespread, undermining faith in government ► Drug Trade     Undermines democracy and rule of law Central America and northwestern South America U.S. attempts to slow the flow of drugs are largely a failure, as evidenced by falling prices of cocaine Watch “ Plan Colombia ” and learn about the failed “War on Drugs”

Geography of Cocaine

Population Patterns

► About 596 million people today ► Major migration   Rural to urban Significance of “brain drain” ► Population Distribution ►  Relationship between population and physical landforms? Infrastructure?

Population Growth  Fast, but some countries are going slowly through demographic transition (contraception)

Population Distribution

Figure 3.12

Natural Increase Rates

Population Patterns

► Migration and Urbanization  Crowded cities result from rural-urban migration ► > 70% urbanization rate ► Lack of infrastructure, housing  Primate cities: large percentage of country’s population in one city ► e.g. Mexico City (23 million / > 21%) ► Leads to overcrowding, anti-rural bias in government policy ► Squatters: colonias, barrios, favelas, or barriadas

Overurbanization & Suburban Sprawl Favela in Rio De Janeiro Sprawling suburbs in Mexico City

Population Living in Urban Areas

Measures of Human Well-Being

► GNI per capita masks the very wide disparity of wealth in the region   “Development” has increased disparity HDI better than GNI because education is more available across gender and class ► Still, challenges remain in regard to availability of education and health care ► HIV/AIDS growing problem  Contribution of “machismo” and drug use

Human Well-being Rankings

Human Well-being Rankings

Sociocultural Issues

► Cultural Diversity   One of the world’s most culturally rich regions ► Indigenous peoples, people of African, European, South Asian, East Asian descent ► Mestizos now majority in Central America and much of South America In urban areas, both: ► Acculturation: cultural borrowing ► Assimilation: loss of old cultural identity

Sociocultural Issues

► Race and the Social Significance of Skin Color    Race not as critical as in North America Instead: family, wealth, education, place of residence, and occupation critical to social status Still, correlation between light skin and wealth

Sociocultural Issues

► Family and Gender Roles  Extended family: individuals tend to subordinate their interests to those of the family ► Families often live in domestic compounds  Marianismo: The Virgin Mary is held up as the model for women ► Chastity and service to the family  Machismo: Master of the household ► Father lots of children, be attractive, be engaging in social situations

Sociocultural Issues

► Children in Poverty     1/3 of children in region work Homelessness of children increasingly common Causes: Economic marginality of recent rural-to-urban migrants, particularly women Severing of extended family ties from rural to-urban migration removes safety net

Brief Moments of Happiness

Sociocultural Issues

► Religion in Contemporary Life   Roman Catholic Church historically dominant ► Partnered with Spanish and Portuguese colonists ► Encouraged colonized to accept their low status, obey authority, and postpone rewards until heaven Over time, Catholicism connected more with poor, less with elites ► Liberation Theology: Catholic activists teaching redistribution of wealth in the 1970s ► Legacy of Liberation Theology undermined/fading for three decades, but again embraced with Pope Francis

Sociocultural Issues

► Evangelical Protestantism    Imported from North America Fastest growing religion in region ► About 10% of Christians “Gospel of Success” ► Theology that those blessed by God will have prosperity in this life ► Has led to increased social mobility but declining class-consciousness

Religion in Middle and South America Javanese Muslim women in Suriname