Transcript Theory and Research Chapter 2 Introduction  Theory  An explanation about how and why something is as it is.

Theory and Research
Chapter 2
Introduction
 Theory

An explanation about how and why something
is as it is
Introduction
 Concepts

Words or signs that refer to phenomena
that share common characteristics

For example, concepts which may interest
sociologists are social and economic class and
self-esteem.
Introduction
 Conceptualization

The process of clarifying what we mean by
a concept
 Example

High-crime late adolescent years
 Begins at about 17 years of age

Birth cohort
 People born in a given calendar year
Introduction
 Operational definition


Concise definition of the concept
Examples

What is “child abuse”?
 Could be only substantiated cases with child
protective services.

What is a “problem drinker”?
 Could be one who drinks ___ drinks in ___ amount
of time.
Introduction
 Variable


A characteristic that can vary from one unit of
analysis to another or for one unit of analysis
over time
A concept that varies
Introduction
 Hypothesis


A testable statement about how two or more
variables are expected to relate to one another
A hypothesis is simply a formal version of a
hunch or speculation that usually is based on
a theory.
Introduction
 Dependent variable

A variable that is affected or influenced by
another variable

What you are trying to predict or explain.
Introduction
 Independent variable

A variable that affects or influences another
variable
Quiz - Question 1
Assume the following statement:
 In our research, we are looking at how
gender (male or female) affects the amount of
money individuals leave for tips at
restaurants.


What is the independent variable?
What is the dependent variable?
Quiz - Question 2
 In our research, we are looking at how
gender (male or female) affects the amount of
money individuals leave for tips at
restaurants.

What are the independent variable
categories?
Quiz – Question 3
 In our research, we are looking at how
gender (male or female) affects the amount of
money individuals leave for tips at
restaurants.

What is a possible hypothesis that could be
generated?
Introduction
 Social Science and Causality

A word of caution


Just because two variables are associated with
each other does not necessarily mean that the
change in one variable will create a change in the
other variable
Establishing causality is difficult
 Typical data gathering techniques make it difficult to
determine “cause” and “effect”
Introduction
 Antecedent variable


A variable that comes before both the
independent variable and dependent variable
May explain the association between the
independent variables and the dependent
variable
Introduction
 Causality Example

Firefighters will tell you of the association between the
number of firefighters at a fire and the damage done at the
fire, that the more firefighters at a fire, the more damage
occurs.
 What is the independent variable?
 What is the dependent variable?

Can you think of an antecedent variable that explains why
fires that draw more firefighters are more likely to do more
damage than fires that draw fewer firefighters?
Introduction
 Spurious – non-causal

When an antecedent variable provides such an
explanation as in the fire fighter example, the original
association between the independent variable and
the dependent variable is said to be spurious, or
non-causal.
Introduction

Establishing causality
1.
2.
3.
Empirical association
Temporal precedence
Elimination of alternative explanations
Introduction
 Intervening variable

A variable that comes between an
independent and a dependent variable
Introduction
 Extraneous variable

A variable that has an effect on the dependent
variable in addition to the effect of the
independent variable
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Theory

An explanation about how and why something
is

It allows you to go beyond the known facts,
suggesting what you might expect in the future,
and allowing you to organize the facts you
already have.
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Focal research

Excerpt from “Moving on: Continuity and
change after retirement”

Adler and Clark’s description of “role theory”
comes at the beginning of their article, before
they present their own research.
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Measurement


The process of devising strategies for
classifying subjects by categories to represent
variable concepts.
Example from Adler and Clark focal research

Classified units of analysis (people around
retirement age) by categories (those who
engaged in volunteer work and those that didn’t)
to represent variable concepts (volunteering).
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Deductive reasoning


Reasoning that moves from more general to
less general statements.
Example

Adler and Clark focal research
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Empirical generalization

A statement that summarizes a set of
individual observations
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Focal research

Excerpt from “Unmasking racism: Halloween
costuming and engagement of the racial
order”

Mueller, Dirks and Picca’s theory of what might
be called the functions of cross-racial costuming
by white students during Halloween comes at the
end of their article, after the presentation of their
findings.
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Inductive reasoning


Reasoning that moves from less general to more
general statements
Example

Mueller, Dirks and Picca’s focal research
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Grounded theory

Theory derived from data in the course of a study
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
Summary
 Relationships existing between research and
theory
 Ethics

Ethical assumptions and implications should
be considered throughout the whole research
process.