Transcript CGE TRAINING MATERIALS MITIGATION ASSESSMENT MODULE D Mitigation Options, Issues and Barriers by Sector D.1 3.1

CGE TRAINING MATERIALS MITIGATION ASSESSMENT
MODULE D
Mitigation Options, Issues and Barriers by Sector
D.1
3.1
Module Objectives and Expectations
1.
Objective: Provide participants with a review of the key sectors
related to Greenhouse Gas (GHG) mitigation as well as crosssectoral opportunities for GHG mitigation, including:
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Emissions sources, trends, and drivers by sector and region
Mitigation technologies and strategies
Policies and measures for their adoption and implementation
Common barriers and potential solutions.
The module also offers background, examples and resources for
identifying, analyzing and elaborating mitigation actions in national
communications.
2.
Expectations: Participants will have a broad but sound
understanding of the key sectors and cross-cutting opportunities
for GHG mitigation actions.
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Module Outline
1. General Considerations
2. Sectoral Review and Discussion
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Energy Supply (Electricity Generation)
Transport
Buildings
Industry
Agriculture
Forestry
Waste Management
3. Mitigation from a Cross-Sectoral Perspective
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MODULE D1
General Considerations
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Fundamental Distinctions in Mitigation Actions
• Technologies and practices that reduce GHG emissions:
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Efficiency (demand, supply)
Substitution (fuels, feedstock, products)
End-of-pipe (carbon capture and storage-CCS)
Practices (farming, land clearing, etc.).
• Policies and instruments that lead to the use of these technologies
and practices:
– Economic and financial instruments (e.g. taxes and incentives, markets,
trade policy)
– Regulatory approaches (e.g. standards, required practices)
– Information (e.g. labelling, campaigns)
– Capacity building (e.g. institutions, skilled workforce).
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Mitigation Potential and Barriers
• Many barriers may need
to be overcome on the
path from theoretical to
actual use of loweremission technologies
and practices
• Many policy tools are
available to help
overcome these barriers,
and must be tailored to
national and local
circumstances.
Source: IPCC (2001) TAR WGIII
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Facilitating Energy Efficiency
• New investments in power, industry, transport and building
infrastructure can be substantially more efficient than existing stock
• Economic growth is powering a rapid increase in these sectors, and
associated emissions
• Almost all countries exhibit declining
energy intensity trends
• Most countries have initiatives
to promote energy efficiency
in these sectors
• Technology integration, support,
and financing risks are high
• Adoption is driven by quality
and productivity increases.
Photo source: Courtesy of
Emerson Process Management
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Ethiopia’s Green Growth Plan
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Global Green Growth Institute (GGGI) supports developing countries in building
green economic development strategies.
Focus on South-South experience and knowledge exchange by experts and
policymakers worldwide.
Green growth plan in Ethiopia:
• Assess country’s emissions, identify GHG mitigation opportunities, assess GHG
abatement potential and cost, develop green growth road map.
• Developed Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) plan reviewing opportunities in
seven sectors: electric power, green cities and buildings, forestry, livestock, soil,
industry and transport.
• Green economy plan based on four pillars:
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Improving crop and livestock production practices to increase food security and farmer income, while
reducing emissions
Protecting and re-establishing forests for economic and ecosystem services
Expanding electricity generation from renewable energy
Leapfrogging to modern, energy-efficient technologies in transport, industrial, and buildings sectors.
Source: GGGI, “Green Growth Planning GGGI
Country Programs ”
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MODULE D2
Sectoral Review and Discussion
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MODULE D2A
Energy Supply (Electricity Generation)
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Energy Supply
• Key mitigation
challenges:
– Meet increasing demand
for energy services while
minimizing environmental
impacts
– Dominance of fossil fuels in
electricity generation
– High costs of low-carbon
technologies
– Long lifetime of capital
stock.
New supercritical coal plant
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Global Energy Supply: Past Trends
World primary energy consumption
• Fossil fuel energy
supply and use
account for ~70% of
total GHG emissions
• Coal and oil have
been the key primary
energy sources for
the past 3-4 decades
• Rapid growth in coal
use since 2000.
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Addressing Energy Supply in a Mitigation Assessment
Mitigation assessments tend to focus on energy supply and choice of fuels and
carriers from a sectoral perspective:
• In most countries, electricity generation is the principal source of emissions
and the main focus of mitigation assessment for energy supply.
• Emissions from fossil fuel production (e.g., coal-bed methane), processing
(refinery technologies), and transport and distribution (T&D ) (pipeline
management) are often addressed as part of industrial sector analysis.
• Biomass energy – both traditional and modern – is typically addressed in
the relevant consuming sectors: biofuels for transportation, biomass fuels
for electricity generation, traditional biomass in residential and agriculture,
etc.
• Fuel switching and development of new energy carriers (e.g. hydrogen for
vehicles) are typically examined in consuming sectors (e.g. transport).
• However, there is no standard and countries should feel free to take
approaches that are appropriate to national institutions and circumstances.
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Energy Supply Mitigation Technologies
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Renewable energy:
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Hydropower
Wind energy
Biomass and bioenergy
Geothermal
Photovoltaics (PV)
Solar thermal electric
Solar heating and cooling
Ocean energy
Advanced conversion technologies
(improved efficiencies) and carriers:
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Supercritical and integrated gasification
combined cycle (IGCC) coal technologies
Combined cycle gas turbine plants
Combined heat and power (CHP) systems
Hydrogen fuel cells
Synthetic fuels from carbon sequestration
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Carbon dioxide capture and storage
(CCS)
Efficiency improvements at existing
power stations
Loss reduction in transmission and
distribution of electricity and natural
gas
Electricity storage (to enable greater
penetration of intermittent renewables)
Improved fuel production and
transport:
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Recovery of coalmine methane
Coal beneficiation and refining
Improved gas and oil flaring
Decentralized energy systems
Nuclear power.
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Policy Instruments
• Market-based instruments:
– Tariff structures (e.g. feed-in tariffs)
– Taxes and subsidies
– Social cost pricing of energy services
• Strict command-and-control regulation:
– Specifying the use of specific fuels or technologies
– Performance and emission standards
• Hybrid measures:
– Emission trading systems
– Renewable portfolio standards
• Voluntary agreements and actions by industry
• Research, development and demonstration activities
• Removal of institutional barriers.
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Energy Supply: Key Barriers
Key barriers:
Overcoming barriers:
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Energy prices
Inconsistency in evaluation of energy
costs
Lack of adequate financial support
Institutional transformation and reforms
Legal and regulatory frameworks
Lack of information
Decision-making process and behaviour
Social and cultural constraints
Capital availability
Lack of internalization of environmental
externalities.
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Multilateral cooperation for regional
interconnections, hydropower and other
renewable energy development
Smaller unit sizes can help overcome the
capital availability barriers (e.g. nuclear)
Improved technology transfer through
regional co-operation in research and
development and commercial contracting
Harmonizing diffusion strategies with
local physical, human, and institutional
resources
Building local technical and institutional
capabilities.
Better grid access for industrial CHP and
other distributed electricity sources.
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Energy Supply Policies in Place
Source: IEA Policies and Measures Databases
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African Renewable Energy Alliance (AREA)
• Global platform for information exchange and
consultation on policies, technologies and financial
mechanisms to accelerate use of renewable energy
in Africa.
• AREA objectives:
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Energy access
Electricity production
Energy efficiency
Energy policy
Governance
Finance
Energy education
Employment.
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Examples of African Development Bank (AfDB)
mitigation activities
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AfDB Clean Energy Investment Framework
elaborates on many broad clean energy
development objectives, including:
– Hastening reduction of energy poverty and
vulnerability
– Facilitating sustained high rates of economic
growth
– Contributing to global energy security, while
increasing collective self-sufficiency and
regional cooperation in African countries
– Promoting clean development and contributing
to global emissions reduction (e.g. energy
efficiency, culture of demand-side energy
savings, increasing renewables).
ClimDev-Africa Programme’s
2012-2014 Work Plan
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Key Resources for Energy Supply Assessment
Links:
Key expertise:
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Open Energy Info (OpenEI):
http://en.openei.org/
IEA Policies and Measures Databases:
http://www.iea.org/textbase/pm/index.html
WEC Energy Efficiency Policies and
Measures: http://www.wecpolicies.enerdata.eu/
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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC): http://www.ipcc.ch/
International Energy Agency (IEA):
http://iea.org/
World Energy Council:
http://www.worldenergy.org/
International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis (IIASA), Energy & Climate Change:
http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Research/ECC/index.
html
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL), International Activities:
http://www.nrel.gov/international/
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
(LBNL), International Energy Studies:
http://ies.lbl.gov/
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Questions for Discussion
• What policy instruments have had the most significant
impact in promoting renewable energy? Improving
power plant efficiencies?
• What are some good examples of successes and
failures in energy supply policies and technologies?
• How is energy sector planning approached in your
country?
• How are GHG mitigation opportunities integrated into
this process?
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MODULE D2B
Transport
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Transport
• One the most challenging
sectors for GHG mitigation:
– GHG emissions growing more
rapidly than any other sector,
fastest in developing countries
– Freight transport emissions is
growing even more rapidly than
passenger
– Much of world’s population without
personal vehicles, a situation that
is rapidly changing
– Dependence on single resource
(95% petroleum)
– Technical and fuel switching
solutions for GHG mitigation can
face significant barriers.
Source: Guangzhou BRT, www.gzbrt.org
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Projected Transport Energy Use by Mode and Region
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As long as transportation remains oil-dependent, GHG emissions will be
roughly proportional to energy use.
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Transport: Trends and Drivers
• Transport demand
expected to grow
with rapid
industrialization
and higher
incomes
in developing
countries.
• Current trends toward private cars, though alternatives
to increase mobility exist (e.g. bus rapid transit).
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Transport: Mitigation Technologies and Strategies
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Fuel efficiency improvements:
– Changes in vehicle and engine design (e.g. hybrid engines, reduced weight and air
resistance)
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Less carbon-intensive fuels and technologies:
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Electric vehicles (with low-carbon electricity)
Hydrogen / fuel cell technology (and low-carbon hydrogen sources)
Biofuels
Natural gas, coal-to-liquids
Mode shifts and land use:
– Public/mass transportation systems (e.g. bus rapid transit)
– Non-motorized transport (walking and cycling)
– Land-use planning (transit-oriented development)
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Transport demand management:
– Reducing travel demand (e.g. through land use planning, telecommunications, etc.)
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Operating efficiency improvements:
– e.g., eco-driving, increased load factors, improved maintenance, reduced idling, etc.
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Transport: Key Barriers
Key barriers:
Overcoming barriers:
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Fuel taxes or charges on road users, including
parking fees, road taxes, license fees, insurance
premiums
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Shifting government spending towards public
transport and away from private transport.
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Fiscal and regulatory measures and public
purchasing aimed at developing larger markets
for low- GHG-vehicles
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Encouraging more sustainable transport patterns,
avoiding pollution, congestion, higher accident
rates, and GHGs associated with cars. Toll rings
around big or medium sized cities
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Moving from zoning/car-based transport to multifunction, high-density pedestrian zones
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Combining measures to overcome inertia and
lock-in.
Infrastructure
Lifestyles
Economic development
Patterns of industrial production
Consumer behavior
Status value
Lock-in of technology and infrastructure
Subsidies
Distorted perceptions
Building codes.
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Transport: Key Policies and Mitigation Measures
• Market-based instruments:
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Increase in fuel tax
Implement road pricing (vehicle miles travelled (VMT) fee)
Increase parking fees
Pay-as-you-drive insurance
Incentives for mass transport systems
Fiscal incentives and subsidies for alternative fuels and vehicles
Incentives through vehicle taxes and license fees for more efficient
vehicles
• Regulatory instruments:
– Fuel economy standards
– Vehicle design or alternative fuel mandates
• Direct investment by governments:
– Infrastructure (e.g. bicycle and pedestrian, electric charging
stations, transit-oriented development).
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Examples of Proposed Transport Initiatives
Summary of NAMA proposals in land transport sector
Planned and existing NAMA actions
Source: Binsted (2011). “NAMA submissions to the
UNFCCC: An overview from a transport perspective”
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Transport: Key Resources
Links:
Key expertise:
• Transport Measures and
Policies to Promote Emission
Reductions (T-MAPPER):
http://www.sutp.org/TMAPPER/
• OpenEI:
http://en.openei.org/wiki/Trans
portation_Assessment_Toolkit
• Institute for Transportation &
Development Policy (ITDP):
http://www.itdp.org/
• International Council on Clean
Transportation (ICCT):
http://www.theicct.org/
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Transport: Questions for Discussion
• What are the major drivers of growth in travel and
transportation energy use in your country?
• What are the principal barriers to improving vehicle
efficiencies (or expanding public transit) and how are
they being addressed?
• Are GHG mitigation opportunities integrated into
transportation and land-use planning in your country,
and if so, how?
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MODULE D2C
Buildings
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Buildings
• Key challenges:
– Overcoming market
barriers (e.g., proper
incentives, financing,
fragmentation of building
industry)
– Long lifetimes of
infrastructure (over half of
current global building
stock will still be standing
in 2050)
– Reduction potentials and
policy leverage on
behavior, culture and
consumer choice poorly
understood.
Source: PassivHaus Institut Darmstadt,
“Passivhaus Primer”
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Buildings: Emissions Sources, Trends and Drivers
• Population, household
amenities and commercial
activity will grow most rapidly
in developing countries.
• IEA projects, by 2050…
Global CO2 from building energy use (2004):
Two common perspectives.
– 67% increase in number of
households
– Tripling of service building
area
– Greater penetration rate of
existing energy-consuming
devices, and increasing
demand for new types of
energy services.
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Buildings: Trends
Residential
Commercial
Growth in global CO2
emissions (including
electricity use)
1.7% per year
(1971-2004)
2.5% per year
(1971-2004)
Largest regional increases
in CO2 from buildings
(including electricity)
Developing Asia (42%),
Middle East/North Africa
(19%)
Developing Asia (30%),
North America (29%),
OECD Pacific (18%)
• Average number of people per household declining, while
average dwelling size generally increasing.
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Buildings: Evaluating Mitigation Technologies
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Buildings: Key Barriers
Key barriers:
Overcoming barriers:
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High initial costs
Lack of consumer awareness of
technologies and their potential
Traditional customs and social
barriers
Misplaced incentives
Lack of finance
Low priority on energy efficiency
Consumers don’t usually pay
true costs
Public perception of product
reliability and country of
production.
Comprehensive, sequenced policy
package could include:
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Information campaigns
Fiscal and financial incentives
Minimum energy performance
standards
Address financial constraints,
develop industry capacity and
boost investment in R&D.
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Buildings Policies: Typology and Examples (1)
Developing Country Examples
Effectiveness /
Cost-effectiveness
Appliance standards
Brazil, China
High / High
Building codes
Singapore, Philippines, Algeria, Egypt,
China
High / Medium
Procurement regulations
China, Mexico, South Korea
High / Medium
Mandatory labelling and certification programmes
Mexico, China, Costa Rica
High / High
Policy Instrument
CONTROL AND REGULATORY MECHANISMS
Energy efficiency obligations and quotas
High / High
Utility demand-side management programmes
High / High
ECONOMIC AND MARKET-BASED INSTRUMENTS
Energy performance contracting
High / Medium
Co-operative procurement
High / High
Energy efficiency certificate schemes
Medium / Medium
Kyoto Protocol flexible mechanisms
China, Thailand
Low / Low
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Buildings Policies: Typology and Examples (2)
Policy Instrument
Developing Country
Examples
Effectiveness / Cost-effectiveness
FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS AND INCENTIVES
Taxation (on CO2 or household fuels)
Low / Low
Tax exemptions / reductions
High / High
Public benefit charges
Medium-low / High in reported cases
Capital subsidies, grants, subsidized loans
Hong Kong
High / Low
Thailand
Medium-high / High
SUPPORT, INFORMATION, AND VOLUNTARY ACTION
Voluntary certification and labelling
Voluntary and negotiated agreements
Medium-high / Medium
Public leadership programmes
Mexico, Philippines,
Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador
High / High
Awareness raising, education / information campaigns
Brazil
Low-medium / High
Mandatory audit and energy management requirement
Egypt
High, but variable / Medium
Detailed billing and disclosure programmes
Medium / Medium
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Buildings: Key Resources
Links:
Key expertise:
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OpenEI:
http://en.openei.org/wiki/Gateway:
Buildings
WEC/ENERDATA Energy
Efficiency Policies and Measures
Database: http://www.wecpolicies.enerdata.eu/
•
Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Environmental Energy
Technologies Division:
http://eetd.lbl.gov/eetd.html
Collaborative Labeling and
Appliance Standards program
http://www.clasponline.org/index.
php
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Buildings: Questions for Discussion
• Globally, the IPCC suggests that buildings are the sector with the
greatest mitigation potential. Is that likely to be the situation in your
country, and if not, why not?
• What are the principal barriers to energy efficiency in households
and commercial buildings in your country?
• Are there examples of notably effective actions? Building or
equipment standards? Information campaigns? Efficiency
incentives? Others?
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MODULE D2D
Industry
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Industry
• Key challenges:
– Continue to provide goods
and services that society
depends on in a GHGconstrained world
– While regulations are
impacting technology use
in large enterprises, smalland medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs)
(important in developing
countries) may lack
economic or technical
capacity to install control
equipment or quickly
innovate.
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Industry: Drivers and Trends
• ~85% of industrial sector
energy use in 2004 from
energy-intensive industries:
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Iron and steel
Non-ferrous metals
Chemicals and fertilizers
Petroleum refining
Minerals (cement, lime,
glass, ceramics)
– Pulp and paper.
• Dramatic growth in
production of energyintensive industrial goods;
trends expected to continue
due to rising population and
per-capita income.
• Since 1970, global annual
production increases of:
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Cement: 271%
Aluminium: 223%
Steel: 84%
Ammonia: 200%
Paper: 180%.
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Industry: Mitigation Technologies and Strategies
• Sector-wide options:
– More efficient motors, high efficiency boilers and process
heaters, fuel switching, using waste materials, recycling
• Process-specific options:
– Using bio-energy in industry wastes, energy recovery from
pressurized blast furnace gas, minimizing PFC emissions from
aluminum manufacture
• Operating procedures:
– Control of steam and compressed air leaks, optimum use of
insulation and equipment size.
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Industry: Key Barriers
Key barriers:
• Lack of information
• Limited capital availability
• Lack of skilled personnel
• Decision-making process
• Energy prices and
subsidies
• Access to technology and
technology transfer
Overcoming barriers:
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Technology diffusion policies: there is no
single instrument to reduce barriers; instead,
an integrated policy accounting for the
characteristics of technologies, stakeholders,
and countries addressed would be helpful
Information programmes designed to assist
energy consumers in understanding and
employing technologies and practices to use
energy more efficiently
Best Practice’ programmes aimed to improve
information on energy efficient technologies,
demonstration projects and information
dissemination, energy audit programmes,
among others
Environmental legislation can be a driving
force in the adoption of new technologies
Direct subsidies and tax credits or other
favourable tax treatments
Financial incentive programmes leading to
large impacts on energy efficiency.
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Industry: Policies and Measures
• Voluntary GHG programmes and agreements:
– Government-initiated
– Company or industry-initiated
• Financial instruments (taxes, subsidies, access to
capital)
• Regional and national GHG emissions trading
programmes
• Regulation of non-CO2 gases
• Policies focusing on:
– Energy and technology; sustainable development, air quality,
waste management.
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Industry: Possible Questions for Discussion
• How might the industrial sector mitigation options
interact with trade and competitiveness issues?
• How might your country be affected by a global market
for low-carbon technologies?
• What are the barriers preventing industries in your
country from increasing energy efficiency?
• What are the technology transfer needs in the industrial
sector in your country, and how might these be
addressed through mitigation actions?
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MODULE D2E
Agriculture
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Agriculture
• Key challenges:
– Uncertainties in long-term
emissions due to
dependencies on trends in
socio-economic
development, population
growth, diet, etc.
– Balancing trade-offs of
mitigation measures in
complex systems (e.g.
increasing other
GHG/pollutants, water
impacts, biodiversity, food
security, etc.)
Source: FAO MICCA Programme pilot projects:
http://www.fao.org/climatechange/micca/70795/en/
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Agriculture: Emissions Sources and Drivers
• Sources:
– CO2: microbial decay or
burning of plant litter and
soil organic matter
– CH4: decomposition of
organic materials in
anaerobic conditions
– N2O: microbial
transformation of nitrogen
in soils and manures.
• Key drivers:
– Population growth
(escalating demands for
food)
– Shifts in diet.
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Agriculture: Trends and GHG implications
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Continued conversion of forest and other land to agriculture (occurring
largely in developing countries)
Continued growth in land productivity (at a declining rate due to increased
use of marginal lands)
– Increasing per-capita food availability despite decreasing per-capita agricultural
land, due to technological progress
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Increased use of conservation and zero-tillage
Growing demand for meat and dairy products in developing countries
(driven by economic growth and changing lifestyles)
Intensive production of beef, poultry and pork increasingly common
Increasing international trade due to changing policies and patterns of
production/demand
Increasing use of agricultural products as substitutes for fossil fuel-based
products (e.g. bio plastics, biofuels).
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Agriculture: Regional Variation
Estimated historical & projected N2O and CH4 emissions in the agricultural sector by region:
CH4 from enteric
fermentation
dominant in areas
with large
livestock
population
Emissions
from rice
production &
biomass
burning mostly
in developing
countries
Manure
management
emissions higher in
developed regions
than developing
regions
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Agriculture: Mitigation Technologies and Strategies
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Reducing emissions through improved:
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Enhancing removals/creating sinks (carbon
sequestration) through:
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Livestock and manure management
Water and rice management
Fertilizer application
Cultivation methods
Agro-forestry
Set-asides and land-use change
Soil carbon storage
Reduced tillage or no till cropping
Avoiding (or displacing) emissions
– Substituting fossil fuels with energy from
agricultural feed stocks (e.g. crop residues,
dung, energy crops)
•
(counted in sectors using the energy).
Source: FAO MICCA Programme pilot projects:
http://www.fao.org/climatechange/micca/70795/en/
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Agriculture: Key Barriers
Key barriers:
Overcoming barriers:
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Farm-level adoption constraints
Government subsidies
Lack of capacity and skills
Lack of information
Property rights
Transaction costs, measurement
and monitoring costs
Potential for reversibility or
displacement of emissions
Measurement uncertainty
Consistency with traditional
practices
Pressure for competing uses of
land and water.
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Participatory arrangements that fully
engage all the involved actors may
help to overcome many barriers
Expansion of internationally
supported credit and savings
schemes, and price support, to
assist rural people
Shifts in the allocation of
international agricultural research
Improvement of food security and
disaster early warning systems
Development of institutional linkage
between countries with high
standards in certain technologies,
for example flood control.
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Agriculture: Policies and Measures
• NAMAs submitted to UNFCCC
related to agriculture
• National Communication
examples:
– Biomass/biogas replacing
cooking coal, rice paddy field
water drainage, molasses
urea block (MUB) cattle feeds
– Reduce crop residue burning,
increase areas for permanent
trees, reduce agricultural land
where open burning is done
Source: FAO, “From Nationally Appropriate
Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) to Low-Carbon
Development in Agriculture”
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Agriculture: Examples of GHG Impacts and
Mitigation Measures
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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FAO Mitigation of Climate Change in Agriculture
(MICCA) Programme
•
•
MICCA’s main objective is to
assist developing countries in
contributing to climate change
mitigation in agriculture.
Four pilot projects: Ecuador,
Kenya, Tanzania and Viet Nam.
•
Kenya:
– Smallholder dairy producers in the
Rift Valley
– Using life-cycle analysis and other
approaches to evaluate technical
alternatives with the goal of
raising “carbon-neutral” cattle
– Under East Africa Dairy
Development Project (EADD)
•
Tanzania:
– Aims to address soil degradation
from current farming practices in
the Uluguru mountains
– Hillside conservation agriculture
project (soil conservation, zero
tillage practices, agroforestry).
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Agriculture: Key Resources
Links:
Key expertise:
•
•
Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO)
–
–
–
Mitigation of Climate Change in
Agriculture (MICCA) Project:
http://www.fao.org/climatechange/70746
@159866/en/
“Food Security and Agricultural
Mitigation in Developing Countries:
Options for Capturing Synergies”:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1318e/i1
318e00.pdf
“Carbon Finance Possibilities for
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land
Use Projects in a Smallholder Context”:
http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1632e/i1
632e.pdf
FAO
–
–
•
Climate change:
http://www.fao.org/climatechange/
en/
Climate-smart agriculture:
http://www.fao.org/climatechange/70746
/en/rg/docrep/012/i1318e/i1318e00.pdf
Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research
(CGIAR):
–
–
Climate Change: Agriculture and Food
Security
http://ccafs.cgiar.org/
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Agriculture: Questions for Discussion
• What types of agriculture mitigation measures might
enhance or decrease food security?
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MODULE D2F
Land use, Land use change and Forestry (LULUCF)
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LULUCF
• Key challenges:
– Addressing underlying
drivers for deforestation
– Integrating climate
mitigation into forestry
policies
– Adequate design (e.g.
leakage, permanence,
monitoring, etc.)
– Balancing trade-offs
(e.g. biodiversity,
competing land uses),
sustainable development
implications.
Source: CIFOR (2011)
(Photo by Neil Palmer/CIAT)
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LULUCF: Emissions Sources and Trends
•
Main source of emissions:
– Stored CO2 released through
deforestation
•
•
Global forest cover = 3952 million
hectares (~30% world’s land area)
Gross deforestation continued at
a rate of 12.9 million hectares per
year (2000-2005):
– Mainly conversion to agricultural
land; also expansion of
settlements, infrastructure and
unsustainable logging practices
•
Due to afforestation, landscape
restoration and natural forest
expansion, most recent estimate
~ 7.3 million hectares per year.
Source: Cosmos Magazine (11 May 2007)
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LULUCF: Drivers of Deforestation and Degradation
Source: Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (2009).
“R-PP Preparation: Drivers of Deforestation and
Degradation” presentation.
Source: Union of Concerned Scientists (2011).
“Drivers of Deforestation: What is Driving
Deforestation Today?” Fact Sheet.
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LULUCF: Mitigation Technologies and Strategies
Source: UNDP (2008). “Key Issues on Land Use, Land
Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) with an Emphasis
on Developing Country Perspectives”
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LULUCF: Options, Impacts and Timing
Afforestation: benefits
accumulate over years
to decades, but more
upfront investments
Emissions avoidance:
largest short-term gains
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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LULUCF: Barriers and Opportunities
Key barriers:
•
•
•
•
•
Overcoming barriers:
Profitability incentives frequently run
•
counter to forest conservation and
sustainable forest management
Direct and indirect drivers of
deforestation lie outside the forestry
•
sector (e.g., agricultural policies/markets)
Lack of technical capability, including for •
monitoring carbon stocks
Limited regulatory and institutional
capacity
Efficiency of forest policies influenced by
land tenure, institutional and regulatory
capacity of governments, financial
competitiveness, cultural relationship to
forests.
Forestry sector options are relatively
low cost compared with those in the
energy sector, which helps to reduce
barriers
Promotion of mitigation projects also
promotes the flow of technology
Independent verification of carbon
abatement would help to increase
the credibility and funding of
forestry-sector mitigation projects.
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LULUCF: Policies and Measures (Country Examples)
• NAMAs submitted to UNFCCC
related to forestry:
Source: FAO “From Nationally Appropriate Mitigation
Actions (NAMAs) to Low-Carbon Development in
Agriculture: NAMAs as a Pathway at Country Level”
• Ecuador’s Yasuni-ITT
Source: UNDP Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office
Gateway, Ecuador Yasuni ITT Trust Fund
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African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) mitigation work
•
AWF identified priority work areas
concerning climate change,
including:
― Mitigate terrestrial carbon
emissions through landscape
conservation, forest management
and rangeland rehabilitation
through carbon payment
mechanisms (e.g. formal global
carbon market and voluntary
markets)
― Help countries access clean and
efficient energy technologies (e.g.
efficient stoves, solar power) to
reduce carbon intensity of
development.
(Source:
http://www.awf.org/section/land/climatechange )
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LULUCF: Key Resources
Links:
Key expertise:
•
•
United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP)
– “Key Issues on Land Use, Landuse Change and Forestry
(LULUCF) with an Emphasis on
Developing Country
Perspectives”:
http://www.undp.org/climatechang
e/docs/English/UNDP_LULUCF_fi
nal.pdf
•
UN-REDD programme
Center for International Forestry
Research (CIFOR)
– Mitigating climate change:
http://www.cifor.org/onlinelibrary/browse/mitigating-climatechange.html
•
Climate and Land Use Alliance
(CLUA):
http://www.climateandlanduseallia
nce.org/
– http://www.un-redd.org/
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LULUCF: Questions for Discussion
• What tools are used in your country to measure or
monitor forest carbon stocks? To analyze potential
mitigation measures?
• Are maps, land tenure regulations, monitoring teams,
etc. available in your country to help assess Forestry
mitigation potential?
• How might REDD crediting or incentives interact with
domestic forestry and land-use policies?
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MODULE D2G
Waste Management
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Waste Management
• Key challenges:
– Availability and quality of
annual data
– Decisions often made
locally without
quantification, leading to
underestimation of waste
sector mitigation globally
– Decoupling generation of
waste from economic
drivers.
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Waste Management: Emissions Sources and Drivers
•
Major sources of GHG:
– Landfill CH4
– Wastewater CH4 and N2O
•
Other sources:
– Minor CO2 emissions from waste
incineration
– Fluorinated gases (CFCs and
HCFCs)
•
•
Can persist for decades in postconsumer waste and occur as trace
components in landfill gas; not
currently quantified
Key drivers:
– Waste generation, which is linked to
population, urbanization, and
affluence
– Extent of landfill gas capture.
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Waste Management: Mitigation Technologies
and Strategies
• Wide range of mature
technologies available for
waste management:
– Landfill gas recovery (reduces
CH4)
– Post-consumer recycling (avoids
waste generation)
– Composting (avoids GHG
generation)
– Processes reducing GHG
generation compared to landfilling
• Thermal processes, e.g.
incineration and industrial
combustion, MBT with landfilling
of residuals, anaerobic digestion
• Advanced thermal processes,
e.g. pyrolysis and gasification.
Source: IPCC (2007) AR4 WGIII
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Waste Example from Ethiopia’s 1st National
Communication
Mitigation analysis of methane emissions from solid waste in the city of Addis Ababa
• Selection of measures depends on costs and socio-cultural attitudes.
Preliminary analysis suggests composting is the cheapest option, followed
by landfill methane recovery.
• Composting is promising because 68% by weight of solid waste in Addis
Ababa city is organic.
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Waste Management: Key Barriers
Key barriers:
Overcoming barriers
• Lack of enabling policies
initiatives, institutional
mechanism, information and
opportunities
• Organizational problems in
collection and transport
• Lack of coordination among
different groups.
•
A multi-pronged approach is needed
which should include the following
components:
–
–
–
Building up of databases on availability of
wastes, their characteristics, distribution,
accessibility, current practices of utilization
and/or disposal technologies and their
economic viability
An institutional mechanism for technology
transfer though a coordinated programme
involving the R&D institutions, financing
agencies, and industry (Schwarz, 1997)
Defining the role of stakeholders including
local authorities, individual house holders,
NGOs, industries, R&D institutions, and
the government.
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Waste Management: Questions for Discussion
• To what extent is landfill gas recovery common practice
in your country? Is this likely to change in the future?
• The emissions benefits of reuse strategies, both in the
formal and informal sectors, as well as waste
minimization and recycling activities, may result largely
from avoided manufacturing and material extraction
emissions. How can these benefits be reflected in
mitigation assessments and in future emissions
inventories?
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MODULE D3
Mitigation from a Cross-Sectoral Perspective
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Types of Cross-Sectoral Mitigation Technologies
• There are various mitigation technologies that affect multiple
sectors, or that cannot be attributed to any particular sector.
• Implementation of cross-sectoral mitigation technologies can:
– Occur in parallel in more than one sector
• Improvement in one sector will benefit the others
– Involve interaction between sectors
• Mitigation potential increased when applied as a group
– Create competition among sectors
• May compete for resources.
• Other techniques:
– Ocean fertilization and geo-engineering
• Speculative; environmental side-effects and costs still being assessed.
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Examples of Cross-Sectoral Mitigation Technologies
• Parallel:
– Solar PV:
• Centralized energy generation in energy sector; distributed energy
generation in buildings sector
– Information technology (IT):
• Implemented in parallel across sectors as component of various end-use
technologies (e.g., advanced vehicle technologies, smart household
appliances.
• Interaction:
– Use of fossil fuel gasification with carbon dioxide capture and storage
(CCS) technology to produce hydrogen for transportation and industrial
applications.
• Competition:
– Use of biomass for transportation fuels, and competition for land and
resources with other sectors.
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Cross-Sectoral Mitigation: Linkages, Synergies
and Trade-offs
• Synergies and trade-offs between measures
with non-climate objectives and GHG mitigation:
– Generally, climate mitigation is not the goal; rather,
outgrowth of efforts driven by economic, security,
of local environmental concerns
– Promising approaches take advantage of natural
synergies between climate protection and
development priorities, in order to advance both
simultaneously.
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Cross-Sectoral Mitigation: Questions for Discussion
• What are some key challenges associated with crosssectoral mitigation approaches (both technologies and
policies), both in assessment and in implementation?
• How can an assessment team ensure analytical
consistency across many different sectors?
• How can the concepts of mitigation potential (market,
economic, social, technological) and barriers best be
incorporated into a mitigation assessment?
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