Vocabulary: Theory, research, and promising practices Michael C. McKenna Today’s Goals Learn about how children acquire word meanings Examine research findings on vocabulary instruction Discuss scientifically-based instructional approaches practice making.
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Vocabulary: Theory, research, and promising practices Michael C. McKenna Today’s Goals Learn about how children acquire word meanings Examine research findings on vocabulary instruction Discuss scientifically-based instructional approaches practice making a vocab. lesson Is the word vocabulary in your vocabulary? What is vocabulary? Modality Domain Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary What is vocabulary? Modality Domain Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary What is vocabulary? Modality Domain Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary What is vocabulary? Modality Domain Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary What is vocabulary? Modality Domain Speaking vocabulary Listening vocabulary Reading vocabulary Writing vocabulary General vocabulary Technical vocabulary Meaning vocabulary 1755 Dictionary of the English Language 1755 Dictionary of the English Language 114,000 words 1755 Dictionary of the English Language 114,000 words impertransibility queck nould 1755 Dictionary of the English Language 114,000 words 2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.) 1755 Dictionary of the English Language 114,000 words 2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.) 660,000+ words webcam cyberphobic doh 2005 Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.) 660,000+ words English users follow set rules for coining new words, thus adding greatly to the number of potential words in the language. English users follow set rules for coining new words, thus adding greatly to the number of potential words in the language. The postman likes our street because it is dogless. Are you a logophile? Are you a logophile? words A Vocabulary Riddle To comprehend what we read, at least 95% of the words must be recognized automatically. How is this possible given the number of words in English? 50K 45,000 40K 30K 17,000 20K 10K 0 5,000 1,500 K 12 Oral vocabulary at the end of first grade is a significant predictor of comprehension ten years later. Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovich, K.E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33, 934-945. Why is a large vocabulary associated with good comprehension? The Instrumental Hypothesis Vocabulary aids comprehension by providing the reader with a tool, or instrument. The Knowledge Hypothesis It’s not so much the words themselves that help, but the knowledge they represent. The Aptitude Hypothesis Comprehension and vocabulary are correlated “not because one causes the other, but because both reflect a more general underlying verbal aptitude.” – Stahl & Nagy (2005) The Access Hypothesis A larger vocabulary means a deeper understanding of words (including nuances of meaning) quicker access to words in the lexicon flexibility in deciding among multiple meanings The Reciprocal Hypothesis Having a bigger vocabulary makes you a better reader. Reading more gives you a bigger vocabulary Being a better reader makes it possible for you to read more Four Obstacles to Acquiring a Large Vocabulary 1. The number of words in English is very large. 2. Academic English differs from the kind of English used at home. 3. Word knowledge involves far more than learning definitions. 4. Sources of information about words are often hard to use or unhelpful. – Stahl & Nagy (2005) How do we learn words from experiences? gavagai An aborigine points to a running rabbit and says “Gavagai.” Can you infer the word’s meaning? Each encounter with a word helps a child narrow its meaning. For example, if he next hears the word gavagai used to refer to a sitting rabbit, the child will infer that running is not connected with the meaning. Young children learn word meanings from one-on-one interactions with parents and siblings. These interactions may be rich or poor. Consider two examples based on Hart and Risley’s (1995) comparison of families of different socioeconomic levels. Yeah. Do I have to eat these? “Motherese” Yes, because they have vitamins that will help you grow and get stronger. Do I have to eat these? What does it mean to know a word? A Continuum of Word Knowledge No knowledge A vague sense of the meaning Narrow knowledge with aid of context Good knowledge but shaky recall Rich, decontextualized knowledge, connected to other word meanings A Continuum of Word Knowledge No knowledge A vague sense of the meaning Narrow knowledge with aid of context Good knowledge but shaky recall Rich, decontextualized knowledge, connected to other word meanings The Reading System (Adams) Context Processor Meaning Processor Orthographic Processor Reading Writing Phonological Processor Speech The Reading System (Adams) Context Processor Lexicon Meaning Processor Orthographic Processor Reading Writing Phonological Processor Speech lexicon That part of long-term memory devoted to word knowledge How is a word stored in the lexicon? cat cat c-a-t /kat/ “meow” 4 legs pet cat c-a-t /kat/ animal “meow” cat 4 legs c-a-t /kat/ pet lion animal mammal “meow” cat 4 legs c-a-t /kat/ pet lion animal mammal “meow” cat 4 legs c-a-t /kat/ pet lion animal mammal “meow” dog cat 4 legs c-a-t /kat/ pet lion animal mammal “meow” dog cat 4 legs c-a-t /kat/ pet lion animal mammal “meow” dog cat 4 legs c-a-t /kat/ pet lion Dual Coding Theory Two systems are involved in learning words. One contains verbal information, the other nonverbal (images). When we learn a word, realworld images that we associate with the concept are also stored. Accessing a word in the lexicon therefore involves both the verbal system and non-verbal (imagery) system. ~ Moral ~ When teaching new words, use pictures and other images where possible. animal mammal “meow” dog cat 4 legs c-a-t /kat/ pet lion The Nonverbal (Imagery) System New meanings and even new pronunciations of a word may be added to a child’s lexicon over time. próduce prodúce produce Raw veggies to make lean To rest one object against another K 1 2 3 4 To rely on another person for support 5 6 7 8 ••• Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 2840). New York: Guilford. Is wide reading enough? Why Wide Reading Is Enough Vocabulary size and the amount a child reads are correlated. Direct instruction cannot possibly account for the number of word meanings children acquire. Why Wide Reading Is Not Enough Context is generally unreliable as a means of inferring word meanings. Most words occur too infrequently to provide the number of exposures needed to learn them. Marzano, R.J. (2004). The developing vision of vocabulary instruction. In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 100-117). New York: Guilford. “There is no obvious reason why direct vocabulary instruction and wide reading cannot work in tandem.” – Marzano (2004, p. 112) Robert Marzano The Vocabulary Catch-22 Children need to learn more words to read well, but they need to read well to learn more words. McKenna, M.C. (2004). Teaching vocabulary to struggling older readers. Perspectives, 30(1), 13-16. What are some of the guiding principles of teaching vocabulary? Guiding Principle Preteach key words to improve comprehension. In 1367, Marain and the settlements ended a seven-year war with the Langurians and Pitoks. As a result of this war, Languria was driven out of East Bacol. Marain would now rule Laman and the other lands that once belonged to Languria. This brought peace to the Bacolean settlements. The settlers no longer had to worry about attacks from Laman. The Bacoleans were happy to be part of Marain in 1367. Yet a dozen years later, these same people would be fighting the Marish for independence, or freedom from United Marain’s rule. In 1763, Britain and the colonies ended a seven-year war with the French and Indians. As a result of this war, France was driven out of North America. Britain would now rule Canada and the other lands that once belonged to France. This brought peace to the American colonies. The settlers no longer had to worry about attacks from Canada. The Americans were happy to be part of Britain in 1763. Yet a dozen years later, these same people would be fighting the British for independence, or freedom from Great Britain’s rule. Guiding Principle Provide more than definitions. WORD Stimulus = DEFINITION Response WORD = DEFINITION Stimulus Response truncate “to cut off” WORD = DEFINITION Stimulus Response truncate “to cut off” “She truncated the lights.” Guiding Principle Combine definitions and contextual examples. Guiding Principle Minimize rote copying of definitions. Guiding Principle Introduce new words in related clusters. antennae thorax leg wing abdomen In content areas, clustering words is natural! But general vocabulary words can be clustered if you work at it! Guiding Principle Provide brief, periodic review. A Thought Experiment Group 1 • Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new words • Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20 words • This hour is uninterrupted. Group 2 Group 2 • Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new words • Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20 words Group 2 • Receives 1 hour of direct instruction on 20 new words • Spends 1 full hour of intense review on all 20 words • This hour is broken into 6 10-minute sessions, 1 per month for 6 months. Assuming that no one encountered any of the 20 words again, which group would do better on a test after a delay of 10 years? Massed vs. Distributed Practice What did the National Reading Panel conclude about teaching vocabulary? NRP Findings on Vocabulary Teaching vocabulary improves general comprehension ability. Preteaching vocabulary helps both word learning and comprehension of a selection. Much vocabulary is acquired through incidental exposure. Repeated exposures in a variety of contexts are important. NRP Findings on Vocabulary A combination of definitions and contextual examples works better than either one alone. Many instructional methods can be effective in teaching vocabulary. Instructional methods should result in active engagement. Both direct and indirect methods should be used. NRP Findings on Vocabulary The more connections that are made to a word, the better the word tends to be learned. Computer applications can be effective. The effectiveness of some instructional methods depends on the age or ability of the children. What the NRP said they didn’t know about vocabulary instruction Which methods work best with students of different ages and abilities? How can technology best be used to teach vocabulary? How is vocabulary best integrated with comprehension instruction? What combinations of instructional methods tend to work best? What are the best ways to assess vocabulary? To what extent do you see these findings reflected in your core materials? What are some of the most effective ways of teaching vocabulary? Some Research-Based Techniques Read-Alouds Semantic Feature Analysis Graphic Organizers List-Group-Label Semantic Maps (word webs) Word Lines Word Sorts Possible Sentences Read-Alouds Planning a Read-Aloud Choose engaging, well-illustrated books. A number of words should be unknown to about half the students. Choose 3 target words that are important for comprehension but likely to be unfamiliar. Keep track of the words you choose. Plan to repeat the read-aloud. Plan multiple exposures in the days following. Conducting a Read-Aloud Be “performance oriented”; read with expression. Include “rich, dialogic discussion.” Activate prior knowledge. Link the story to experiences of students. Elicit responses from students. Give direct, clear, and simple instruction in word meanings before the read-aloud. Give a sentence context from the story in advance. Discuss words before and after the story. Embed quick definitions while reading. (Biemiller) Do not display pictures while reading (Beck et al.) Warning! Spending too much time discussing read-alouds may detract from valuable reading practice. – Stahl (1998). A Closer Look at Definitions golf golf n. 1. a good walk spoiled (Mark Twain) 2. a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course (Webster) a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course class distinguishing features a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course class distinguishing features a game in which a player using special clubs attempts to sink a ball with as few strokes as possible into each of the 9 or 18 successive holes on a course class distinguishing features Aristotle Semantic Feature Analysis humans adult female woman + + man + o girl o + boy o o games clubs ball o golf + + hockey + o basketball o + games clubs ball o golf + + hockey + o basketball o + games clubs ball golf + + hockey + o basketball o + games clubs ball golf + + hockey + o basketball o + games clubs ball golf + + hockey + o basketball o + games clubs ball golf + + hockey + o basketball o + games clubs ball golf + + hockey + o basketball o + games clubs ball golf + + hockey + o basketball o + games clubs ball golf + + hockey + o basketball o + popinary popinary “a fry cook” popinary “a fry cook” Mrs. Byrne's Dictionary of Unusual, Obscure, and Preposterous Words: Gathered from Numerous and Diverse Authoritative Sources cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + o + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker + + + cooks fries things makes salads bakes popinary + o o chef + + + baker s + + Characters Frog Toad Curious George Wise Adventurous Graphic Organizers A graphic organizer is a diagram that shows how key terms are related. What’s so great about them? What’s so great about them? They help kids “see” abstract content. There is little to “read.” They are easy to construct and discuss. Technical terms can be taught in clusters. They enhance recall and understanding. They have an impressive research base. Shakespearean Tragedy Act 1 Act 2 Act 3 Act 4 Act 5 Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion Complication Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion Climax Complication Exposition Complication Climax Resolution Conclusion Climax Complication Exposition Complication Resolution Climax Resolution Conclusion Rising Action Climax Complication Exposition Complication Resolution Climax Resolution Conclusion Rising Action Climax Complication Exposition Falling Action Complication Resolution Climax Resolution Conclusion egg adult larva pupa How to Find the Area of a Triangle No Right triangle? Multiply legs Determine height Multiply by base Yes Divide by 2 Tree Diagrams Musical Instruments Musical Instruments wind nonwind Musical Instruments wind brass nonwind woodwind Musical Instruments wind brass nonwind woodwind string percussion Musical Instruments wind brass trumpet nonwind woodwind clarinet string violin percussion drum Venn Diagrams Frog and Toad Curious George No people Animal Characters Animals talk Could happen Blue People Tall People Thin People Blue People Tall People Thin People Blue People Tall People Thin People drugs stimulants depressants alcohol barbituates caffeine dexadrine drugs stimulants depressants caffeine dexadrine alcohol barbituates drugs stimulants depressants caffeine dexadrine alcohol barbituates antennae thorax leg wing abdomen Labeled Picture Sociograms HH H P P H P P P H P P P P Sara Delano (1855-1941) James Roosevelt (1828-1900) Elliott Roosevelt (1860?-94) Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) Anna b. 1906 James b. 1907 Anna Hall (1863-92) Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962) Elliott b. 1910 FDR, Jr. b. 1914 John b. 1916 List-Group-Label Hilda Taba List Students brainstorm all the words they can recall at the end of a unit. Group Students suggest logical ways to group the words. Label Students suggest a label for each group they form. List Students brainstorm all the words they can recall at the end of a unit. Group Students suggest logical ways to group the words. Label Students suggest a label for each group they form. List Students brainstorm all the words they can recall at the end of a unit. Group Students suggest logical ways to group the words. Label Students suggest a label for each group they form. no legs boa venom garter cobra fang scales coral tail rattle copperhead trees holes ground no legs boa venom garter cobra fang scales coral tail rattle copperhead trees holes ground no legs boa venom garter cobra fang scales coral tail rattle copperhead trees holes ground Kinds of Snakes garter boa copperhead cobra coral Things Snakes Might Have rattle scales fang no legs venom tail Where Snakes Are Found trees holes ground no legs boa venom garter cobra fang scales coral tail rattle copperhead trees holes ground Kinds of Snakes garter boa copperhead cobra coral Things Snakes Might Have rattle scales fang no legs venom tail Where Snakes Are Found trees holes ground Semantic Maps (Word Webs) Brainstorming Students offer ideas related to a topic. Mapping Teacher and students form categories and map the words into a diagram. Reading Students read a nonfiction selection. Completing the Map Teacher and students revisit the map and together refine and expand it. no legs boa venom garter cobra fang scales coral tail rattle copperhead trees holes ground Kinds of Snakes garter boa copperhead cobra coral Things Snakes Might Have rattle scales fang no legs venom tail Where Snakes Are Found trees holes ground rattle scales fang no legs venom tail Things Snakes Might Have Snakes Kinds garter boa copperhead cobra coral Where trees holes ground Semantic maps have the advantage of mirroring how words are stored in the lexicon. animal mammal “meow” dog cat 4 legs c-a-t /kat/ pet lion Word Lines hot cold hot tepid cold hot tepid sweltering cold hot tepid sweltering cold chilly hot tepid sweltering cold chilly Word Sorts Open Sort Categories are not given. thorax abdomen wing adult egg pupa antennae larva head leg Closed Sort Parts Stages Closed Sort Parts Stages thorax abdomen wing head leg antennae pupa egg larva adult Possible Sentences 1. Present a list of 8-12 words the students will encounter in the new text. 2. Add a few familiar terms. 3. Ask for sentences containing at least two of the words. 4. Teach the text. 5. Return to the sentences. 6. Together decide whether they are correct or can be edited to make them so. lexicon syntactic clue distributed practice popinary word definition *eponym *toponym *portmanteau Some Research-Based Techniques Read-Alouds Semantic Feature Analysis Graphic Organizers List-Group-Label Semantic Maps (word webs) Web Trees Word Lines Word Sorts Possible Sentences What do all of these techniques (except one) have in common? 1. They involve clusters of related words. 2. They encourage children to categorize. What’s the exception? Huckleberry Finn fan-tods yallerboys mudcat Illinois Missouri Kentucky Tennessee Arkansas Mississippi Louisiana Hannibal Missouri • Illinois Kentucky Tennessee Arkansas Mississippi Louisiana Hannibal Missouri • Illinois Kentucky Tennessee Arkansas Mississippi Louisiana More Suggestions Echo student talk, using richer vocabulary. I wrote this. Wonderful. I hope you told me exactly what you saw on your trip to the zoo. “Sprinkle” your classroom with vocabulary. Beck & McKeown (2004) Talk around words. Stahl & Stahl (2004) Be a Word Wizard! wary Tom Sue Ed Juan Maria Lakesha Paul Jack scowl ridiculous fortunate – Beck & McKeown (2004) Ask “silly questions.” – Beck & McKeown (2004) Would a fortunate person scowl? Encourage word play (including teachers!) Words Named for People (eponyms) • • • • • • • • einsteinium teddy bear boycott pasteurize watt decibel saxophone braille • • • • • • • • silhouette sousaphone zinnia sideburns shrapnel magnolia hooligan gardenia Words Named for Places (toponyms) • • • • • • • • bikini tuxedo badminton hamburger californium uranium plutonium damask • • • • • • • • ottoman bayonet cologne frankfurter magenta marathon tangerine manila Words with Unusual Stories • • • • • • • • bazooka bleachers blurb cowlick crowbar Dixie gas goatee • • • • • • • • googol gorilla jeep jumbo sandwich Pacific serendipity tank Blends (Portmanteaus) • • • • • • • • beefalo bit brunch caplet cockapoo electrocute guestimate infomercial • • • • • • • • jack rabbit liger lox modem moped motel sitcom skort More Blends . . . • • • • • slurb smog snazzy splatter spork (why not foon?) • squiggle • tangelo • • • • • • telethon tiglon transister twiddle zap zedonk Acronyms • • • • • • scuba radar sonar laser snafu fubar Mnemonics principle rule principal pal Connotations What’s the difference between a fiddle and a violin? What can we do increase children’s vocabularies? 1. Make vocabulary a school-wide goal Amend your plan. Establish instructional goals. Raise consciousness. Communicate expectations. 2. Establish teacher study groups Organize groups by grade level. Provide time for discussion. Reward participation. Encourage administrator participation. Select resource books. 3. Consider supplemental and intervention programs Tie their use to assessments. Establish guidelines for use. Locate product reviews. “In the long run, effective intervention will involve extended vocabulary work as a normal part the curriculum. (p. 34) Andy Biemiller Biemiller, A. (2004). Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades.In J.F. Baumann & E.J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 2840). New York: Guilford. Suggested References Baumann, J.F., & Kame’enui, E.J. (2004). Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice. New York: Guilford. Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S.R., & Johnston, F. Words their way (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford. Nagy, W.E. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Newark, DE: IRA. Stahl, S.A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Stahl, S.A., & Kapinus, B.A. (2001). Word power: What every educator needs to know about teaching vocabulary. Washington, DC: NEA. Stahl, S.A., & Nagy, W.E. (2005). Teaching word meanings. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.