Integration and Control • Animals? • Plants? Integration and Control • Animals? –nervous impulses & hormones • Plants? –phytohormones.
Download ReportTranscript Integration and Control • Animals? • Plants? Integration and Control • Animals? –nervous impulses & hormones • Plants? –phytohormones.
Integration and Control • Animals?
• Plants?
Integration and Control • Animals?
–nervous impulses & hormones • Plants?
–phytohormones
Important Plant Functions • Growth -
– increase in size • increase organs - roots, stems, leaves – orient favorably in the environment • seedling growth • growth of adult organs (?)
Phototropism
• First investigated by Charles and Frances Darwin (1881) – canary grass
Phalaris canariensis
L
.
– The Power of Movement in Plants (1881) – Seedlings • coleoptile • plumules
Phototropism
Phototropism - Darwins’ Experiment
•
Conclusion
: – Some chemical is produced in the tip and transmitted down the stem to somehow produce bending.
– There is a growth-promoting messenger.
Phototropism - Fritz Went’s Experiment
• Dutch Plant Physiologist 1929 • Oat seedlings • Diffusion of phytohormone from growing tip in agar blocks • Agar blocks placed on oat seedlings
Phototropism - Fritz Went’s Experiment
Phototropism - Fritz Went’s Experiment
• Conclusion: – A growth substance (phytohormone) must be (1) produced in the tip; (2) transmitted down the stem; and somehow (3) accumulate on the side away from the light.
– “Auxin” (to increase, by Went) – Either • H.1: is destroyed on the lighted side • or • H.2: migrates to the dark side
Phototropism
Distribution of Auxin in an Oat Seedling (
Avena savita
) • Auxins are produced in growing tips (meristems); transmitted in the phloem. Basipetal, Acropetal
Distribution of Auxin in an Oat Seedling (
Avena savita
) • Polar Transport * Auxins are produced in growing tips (meristems); transmitted in the phloem. Basipetal, Acropetal Influx carriers basal efflux carriers Becomes protonate in CW space
Distribution of Auxin in an Oat Seedling (
Avena savita
) • Polar Transport * Auxins are produced in growing tips (meristems); transmitted in the phloem. Basipetal, Acropetal Influx carriers protonate IAA basal efflux carriers nonprotonate IAA Becomes protonate in CW space
Naturally Occurring Auxins
have been chemically isolated and analyzed (acid side chain on a aromatic ring) • Fig15-2a
Synthetic Auxins (precursors)
• Fig15-2b
Synthetic Auxins (precursors)
• 2, 4-D and 2,4,5-T are herbicides for broad leaved plants at very low concentrations.
• Widely used commercially for 30 years defoliant in Viet Nam.
– Contaminant of 2,4,5-T • tetrachlorobenzo-para-dioxin “dioxin”
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants • 1. Phototropism • ----- • 2. Cell Elongation – causes polysaccharide cross-bridges to break and reform
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants • 1. Phototropism • ----- • 2. Cell Elongation extensins
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants 2. Cell Elongation extensins Phytohormones serve as signals - signal receptionion transduction response
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants • 1. Phototropism • ----- • 2. Cell Elongation • 3. Geotropism
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants • 1. Phototropism • ----- • 2. Cell Elongation • 3. Geotropism (Gravitropism) • 4. Initiation of adventitious root growth in cuttings • 5. Promotes stem elongation and inhibits root elongation
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants – 6. Apical Dominance
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants – 6. Apical Dominance – 7. Leaf Abscission - Abscission Layer - pectin & – cellulose – ethylene -> – pectinase & – cellulase
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants – 7. Leaf Abscission
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants • 1. Phototropism • 2. Cell Elongation • 3. Geotropism (Gravitropism) • 4. Initiation of adventitious root growth in cuttings • 5. Promotes stem elongation and inhibits root elongation • 6. Apical Dominance • 7. Leaf Abscission • 8. Maintains chlorophyll in the leaf • 9. Seedling Growth • 10. Fruit Growth (after fertilization) • 11. Parthenocarpic development
Other Normal Effects of Auxins in Plants • • 11. Parthenocarpic development (Pollination -> fertilization -> ovary development) – Massart 1902 • dead pollen grains -> fruit development in orchids – Fitting 1910 • pollen extract -> fruit development in orchids – Yasuda 1934 • pollen extract -> fruit development in cucumbers • pollen extract -> auxins (IAA) – Gustafson 1936 • IAA paste -> fruit development in several plants
Auxins
• Work at very small concentrations (500 ppm) • Action Spectrum: primarily
blue
• Tryptophan is the primary precursor • Auxins must be inactivated at some point by forming conjugates or by enzymatic break down by enzymes such as IAA oxidase
Trypophan-dependent Biosynthesis of IAA
Bound Auxins (To inactivate - IAA-conjugates)
Bound Auxins (To inactivate - IAA-conjugates)
Bound Auxins (To inactivate - Decarboxylation)
Gibberellins • Isolated from a fungal disease of rice • “Foolish Seedling Disease” •
Gibberella fugikuroa
• Isolated in the 1930’s Japan • Gibberellic Acid (GA)
Gibberellins • Gibberellic Acid • 125 forms of Gibberellins
Gibberellins • Produced mainly in apical meristems (leaves and embryos). Are considered terpenes (from isoprene).
Gibberellins
Gibberellins • Produced mainly in apical meristems (leaves and embryos).
Gibberellins • At least 125 different forms.
• Produced mainly in apical meristems.
• Low concentration required for normal stem elongation.
Gibberellins • Low concentration required for normal stem elongation.
Gibberellins • Low concentration required for normal stem elongation.
• Can produce parthenocarpic fruits (apples, pears …)
Gibberellins • Low concentration required for normal stem elongation.
• Can produce parthenocarpic fruits (apples, pears …) • Important in seedling development.
– breaking dormancy – early germination
Gibberellins • Low concentration required for normal stem elongation.
• Can produce parthenocarpic fruits (apples, pears …) • Important in seedling development.
Gibberellins
Gibberellins • Important in seedling development.
• Controls the mobilization of food reserves in grasses.
Gibberellins • Important in seedling development.
• Controls the mobilization of food reserves in grasses.
• - cereal grains
Gibberellins • Important in seedling development.
• Controls the mobilization of food reserves in grasses.
Gibberellins • Important in seedling development.
• Controls the mobilization of food reserves in grasses.
Gibberellins • Controls bolting in rosette-type plants.
– Lettuce, cabbage (photoperiod) – Queen Ann’s lace, Mullein (cold treatment) – premature bolting
Gibberellins • Controls bolting in rosette-type plants.
• Important factor in bud break.
Gibberellins • Controls bolting in rosette-type plants.
• Important factor in bud break.
• Promotes cell elongation and cell division.
Gibberellins • Controls bolting in rosette-type plants.
• Important factor in bud break.
• Promotes cell elongation and cell division.
• Antisenescent.
Gibberellins • Controls bolting in rosette-type plants.
• Important factor in bud break.
• Promotes cell elongation and cell division.
• Antisenescent.
• Transported in both the phloem and xylem.
Gibberellins • Controls bolting in rosette-type plants.
• Important factor in bud break.
• Promotes cell elongation and cell division.
• Antisenescent.
• Transported in both the phloem and xylem.
• Application of GA to imperfect flowers causes male flower production. (monoecious, dioecious)
Gibberellins • Controls bolting in rosette-type plants.
• Important factor in bud break.
• Promotes cell elongation and cell division.
• Antisenescent.
• Transported in both the phloem and xylem.
• Application of GA to imperfect flowers causes male flower production. (monoecious, dioecious) • Probably function by gene regulation and gene expression.
Gibberellins • Application of GA to imperfect flowers causes male flower production. (monoecious, dioecious) • Probably function by gene regulation and gene expression.
• Promotes flower and fruit development.
– “juvenile stage” --> “ripe to flower” – The juvenile stage for most conifers lasts 10 - 20 years. Exogenous application of GA can cause precocious cones.
Gibberellins • Promotes flower and fruit development.
– “juvenile stage” --> “ripe to flower”
Antigibberellins - Growth Retardants • Block steps in Gibberellin biosynthesis. Prevents “lodging”.
Cytokinins • Discovered during the early days of tissue culture.
–
Stewart
1930’s – carrot phloem cells + coconut milk --> whole plant –
Skoog
1940’s – tobacco pith cells + auxin & coconut medium --> whole plant – “CYTOKININ”
Cytokinins •
ZEATIN
- most abundant cytokinin in plants.
–
Adenine
is the basic building block.
Terpene Biosynthesis -
cytokinin
(Can be made from isoprene via the melvonic acid pathway.) • Produced mainly in
apical root meristems
.
Cytokinins • Transported “up” the plant in the
xylem
tissue.
Cytokinins • Transported “up” the plant in the
xylem
tissue.
• Mainly affects
cell division
.
– “
Witches’ Broom
” • mistletoe; bacterial, viral or fungal infection
Cytokinins – “
Witches’ Broom
” • mistletoe; bacterial, viral or fungal infection
Cytokinins • “
Crown Gall
” – a neoplasic growth due to infection by
Agrobacterium tumifaciens.
–
A. tumifaciens
carries the genes for production of cytokinin and auxins on a plasmid. Plasmid genes become a part of host cell genome.
Cytokinins – Play an antagonistic role with auxins in
apical dominance.
Cytokinins • Promotes
leaf expansion
.
• Prevents
senescence
.
• Promotes
seed germination
in some plants.
Cytokinins • Promotes
leaf expansion
.
• Prevents
senescence
.
• Promotes
seed germination
in some plants.
• Both cytokinins and auxins are needed for
plant tissue cultures
.
Cytokinins • Both cytokinins and auxins are needed for
plant tissue cultures
. (Skoog and others…) –
Cell Initiation Medium
(
CIM
) • Approximately equal amounts of
cytokinin
and
auxins
will proliferate the production of undifferentiated
callus
.
– EXPLANT ----> CIM
Cytokinins • Both cytokinins and auxins are needed for
plant tissue cultures
. (Skoog and others…) –
Cell Initiation Medium
(
CIM
) –
Root Growth Medium
(
RIM
) • High auxin:cytokinin ratio
Cytokinins • Both cytokinins and auxins are needed for
plant tissue cultures
. (Skoog and others…) –
Cell Initiation Medium
(
CIM
) –
Root Growth Medium
(
RIM
) –
Shoot Growth medium
(SIM) • High cytokinin:auxin ratio
Ethylene • A
gas
produced in various parts of the plant.
• (
CH2=CH2
) • Production promoted by various types of
stress
- water stress, temperature, wounding & auxins.
• Can be made from the amino acid
methionine
(S)
Ethylene • Can be made from the amino acid
methionine
(S) • Promotes
leaf curling
(epinasty).
Ethylene • Can be made from the amino acid
methionine
(S) • Promotes
leaf curling
(epinasty).
• Promotes
senescence
.
– declining metabolic rates – decrease in protein synthesis – (Daylight and temperature affects production.)
Ethylene • Can be made from the amino acid
methionine
(S) • Promotes
leaf curling
(epinasty).
• Promotes
senescence
.
• Promotes
fruit ripening
.
Ethylene • Can be made from the amino acid
methionine
(S) • Promotes
leaf curling
(epinasty).
• Promotes
senescence
.
• Promotes
fruit ripening
.
• Promotes
etioloation
and the maintenance of the
hypocotyl hook
and
plumular arch
.
• Is
autocatalitic
.
Ethylene • Can be made from the amino acid
methionine
(S) • Promotes
leaf curling
(epinasty).
• Promotes
senescence
.
• Promotes
fruit ripening
.
• Promotes
etioloation
&
hypocotyl hook
.
• Is
autocatalitic
.
• Promotes
bud dormancy
.
• Inhibits
cell elongation
.
Ethylene – Causes
hypocotyl hook
&
plumular arch
.
• Ethylene Signal Transduction Pathway
Arabidopsis
mutants • Silver Thiosulfate
Abscisic Acid • Produced mainly in
leaves
(chloroplasts) and transported through the
phloem
.
Terpene Biosynthesis -
Abscisic Acid
(Can be made from isoprene via the melvonic acid pathway.) •
Abscisic Acid • Isolated from
dormant buds
in the 1930’s.
– Promotes “winter’ and “summer dormancy”.
Abscisic Acid • • Isolated from
dormant buds
in the 1930’s.
Growth inhibitor
in
seeds
.
– ABA -----------------------> ABA-glucoside cold water stress – (may wash out)
Abscisic Acid • • Isolated from
dormant buds
in the 1930’s.
Growth inhibitor
in
seeds
.
• Causes
stomatal closure
.
– (Response to chloroplast membrane changes during water stress.)
Brassinosteroids
• Found in
Brassica rapus.
• Isolated from most tissues.
• Polyhydrated Sterol
Brassinosteroids
• Found in
Brassica napus.
• Isolated from most tissues.
• Stimulates shoot elongation, ethylene production; inhibits root growth and development.
Polyamines
• First observed as crystals in human semen by Van Leeuwenhooke in the 1600’s.
• Ubiquitous in living tissue. Common biochemical pathway in all organisms.
Polyamines
• First observed as crystals in human semen by Van Leeuwenhooke in the 1600’s.
• Ubiquitous in living tissue.
• Investigated by plant physiologists beginning in the 1970’s. Effect on macromolecules and membranes discovered.
• Role in normal cell functioning in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. • Growth factor.