Transcript Labour market segregation between men and women What to measure How to measure it.

Labour market
segregation
between men and women
What to measure
How to measure it
Contents
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A definition
Causes
Types
Indicators
Data needs
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A definition
• Labour market segregation in general:
Practice of restricting particular population group(s) to certain
(economic/non-economic) activities in order to maintain the
economic advantages and higher social status of the other
population group(s)
• Types of labour market segregation:
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SEX
Race, ethnicity
Religion
Migrants/non-migrants
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Causes
• De jure - enforced by law
– Laws forbidding/hindering women from working or from doing
certain jobs
• De facto – widespread individual preferences, social
customs
– Traditional female roles of family caretakers impede/encumber
that they work (in certain types of jobs) or look for (certain types
of) work, on an equal footing as men
– Subordination to men means that women are not free to work (in
certain types of jobs) or look for (certain types of) work without
approval of husband/father/brother
– Social and educational conditioning that hinder competitiveness
to allow women to work on an equal footing as men
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Types of segregation
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In the entry to/exit from the labour market
In the types of economic activities carried out
In their labour inputs
In their returns to labour
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Entry/exit
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Do they work ? Employment
Do they look for work? Unemployment
Do they work or look for work? Labour force
Do they enter and exit the labour market? Labour
turnover, life cycle patterns
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Types of activities
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The type of work they do - occupations
The type of establishment they work in - industries
The type of contract - status in employment
The type of employer - institutional sector
The size of establishment where they work
Where they work - place of work
Hazardousness of their work – occupational injuries and
disease
• Their voice – union density and representation
• Social security coverage
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Labour inputs
• How much do they work - hours actually worked/usually
worked, overtime, part-time/full-time
• How inconvenient are the hours they work - Night work,
shift work, weekend work
• How often are they absent from work and for what
reasons – family reasons, economic reasons, social
reasons
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Returns to labour
• Income from employment
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Basic wages
Overtime payments
Fringe benefits
Social security benefits
Regular and irregular payments
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Indicators
• Types of indicators
• Indicators to measure segregation in:
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The entry to/exit from the labour market
The types of economic activities carried out
Labour inputs
Returns to labour
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Types of indicators
• Measures of relationship
– Ratios : relation between two quantities (a/b)
– Proportions, percentages : quotient between one part and the
total (a/(a+b))
– Index numbers
• Measures of central tendency
– Mean, median, mode
• Measures of variability
– Frequency distribution, range, standard deviation
• Shape of the distribution
– Skewness, kurtosis
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Index numbers
• Value in relation to a standard value (often =100)
• When are index numbers used
– Summarize large quantities of qualitative information
ID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F |
– Indicate variations in time
Wage index = (Wt – W(t-1))/W(t-1)
• Types
– Simple index number
Gender pay gap = Wm-Wf
– Weighted index number
Laspeyres price index = ∑ Pi1Qi0/ ∑ Pi0Qi0
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Indicators to measure
entry/exit
• Activity rate
– Gross: Labour force/total population * 100
– Net: Labour force/working age population * 100
• Employment rate
– Employed persons/working age population * 100
• Unemployment rate
– Unemployed persons/Labour force * 100
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Indicators to measure
activities carried out
• Share of women in category i
Women in category i/total workers in category i * 100
= Fi/Ni * 100
• Percentage of all women in category I
Women in category i/all women * 100
= Fi/F * 100
• Sex ratio (in category i)
Women in category i/Men in category i * 100
= Wi/Mi * 100
• Dissimilarity index (ID)
ID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F |
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Indicators to measure
labour inputs
• Distribution of workers by hours worked per week
• Percentage women/men who work less/more than x
hours per week
• Distribution of workers by working time arrangements
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Indicators to measure
returns to labour
• Gender wage gap
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(Wm – Wf)/Wm * 100
Gender wage gap corrected for differences in
occupations/industries
1/N ∑Ni * (Wmi - Wfi)/Wmi
Average wage
1/N ∑ Wi
Median wage - wage below and above which half of the
population is found
Distribution of workers by categories of income earned
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Data needs
• Complete worker coverage
• Sufficient detail
• Explanatory variables
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Complete worker
coverage
• Coverage because of the SNA-93 definition of work
• Coverage in labour statistics concepts
• Coverage because of use of short or long reference
periods
– Seasonal/casual activities
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Definition of work,
SNA-93
Productive activities
Activities that
produce goods
Activities that produce
services for the market
or that are carried out for
payment
(for the marketEconomic
or for free)
activities
Activities that
produce unpaid
services for the
consumption of
own/another
household
Non-economic
activities
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Treatment of non-market
activities, SNA-93
Included
(if the amount of that good is quantitatively important in relation to the
total supply of that good in a country)
Growing or gathering field
crops, fruits and
vegetables
Producing eggs, milk and
food
Hunting animals and birds
Catching fish, crabs and
shellfish
Cutting firewood and
building poles
Collecting thatching and
weaving materials
Burning charcoal
Mining slat
Cutting peat
Carrying water
Threshing and milling grain
Making butter, ghee and
cheese
Slaughtering livestock
Curing hides and skins
Preserving meat and fish
Making beer, wine and
spirits
Crushing oil seeds
Weaving baskets and mats
Making clay pots and plates
Weaving textiles
Making furniture
Dressmaking and tailoring
Handicrafts made from nonprimary products
Constructing
dwellings
Constructing
farm
buildings
Building
boats and
canoes
Clearing land
for cultivation
Source: Based on System of National Accounts, 1993.
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Excluded
Cleaning, decorating
and maintaining
dwelling, including
small repair
Cleaning, repairing
household durables,
vehicles or other
goods
Preparing and serving
meals
Caring for, training
and instructing
children
Caring for the sick,
invalid or old people
Transporting
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or their goods
Coverage in concepts
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Employment
Unemployment
Informal sector
Income
Industrial disputes
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Coverage in
employment
• Persons at work for at least one hour
– Persons who work a few hours and whose social role is to be a
housewife, student or retired
– The self employed
– Unpaid family workers
– Armed forces
– Unpaid workers
• Persons not at work
– Extended absences
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Coverage in
unemployment
• Actively seeking work
– Willingness to wrok
• Being available to work
– Any work
– Only at home
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Coverage in informal
sector
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Sectors often excluded:
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Agriculture
Domestic work
Outwork/homework
Work for the benefit of own household
Main and secondary jobs
Workers without fixed work location
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Coverage in income
• Components of income:
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Basic wages
Bonuses
Payments in kind and services
Social security benefits
• Family-related payments
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Coverage in industrial
disputes
• Legal or official disputes
• Minimum duration of disputes
• Workers directly and indirectly involved
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Sufficient detail
• The more detail, the clearer it is to see gender
differences
– Examples
• Sample size may not always allow the detail required
– In household surveys
– In establishment surveys
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Examples of sufficient
detail
• Occupations
– Professionals by type: doctors vs nurses, physicists vs teachers
– Managers in small vs large firms
– Craftworkers in mining vs clothes manufacturing
• Status in employment
– Regular vs. casual employees
– Subsistence workers and homeworkers vs employers
• Income
– Basic pay vs overtime pay, bonuses and social security
contributions
• Hours of work
– Normal hours vs overtime and absence from work
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Explanatory variables
• All these indicators should be calculated not only by sex,
but by:
– Levels of education
– Age groups
– Family context
• Marital status
• Presence and number of preschool children
• Presence of elderly persons requiring care
• Therefore, statistics should be readily disaggregated by
these variables
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