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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
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FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 2

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 3

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 4

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 5

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 6

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 7

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 8

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 9

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 10

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 11

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 12

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 13

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 14

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 15

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 16

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 17

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 18

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 19

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 20

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
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AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 21

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 22

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
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FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 23

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 24

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 25

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 26

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 27

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 28

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 29

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 30

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 31

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 32

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 33

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 34

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 35

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 36

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 37

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 38

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 39

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 40

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 41

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
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AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 42

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 43

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
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FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 44

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 45

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 46

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 47

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 48

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 49

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 50

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 51

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 52

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 53

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 54

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 55

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 56

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 57

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 58

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 59

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 60

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 61

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 62

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
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AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 63

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 64

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
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FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 65

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 66

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 67

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 68

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 69

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 70

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 71

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 72

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 73

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 74

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 75

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 76

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 77

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 78

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 79

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 80

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 81

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 82

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 83

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
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AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 84

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 85

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
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FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 86

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 87

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 88

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 89

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 90

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 91

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 92

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 93

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 94

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 95

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 96

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 97

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 98

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 99

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 100

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 101

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 102

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 103

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 104

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
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AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 105

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 106

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
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FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 107

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 108

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 109

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 110

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 111

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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Slide 112

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

FIRELINE
• Off-Campus Residence Fire
• FINAL REPORT:
Deutsche Bank Building Fire
• Discussion Questions
HANDS-ON
• Firefighter Survival Skills:
Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
• Quiz
• AERT Atmospheres Class
Quiz
Emergency Services, LLC / Copyright 2007 / Volume 07-5

TRAINING
FIRE MEDICS
• PHTLS Training 1:
Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
• Quiz
EVOLUTIONS 2000
• Kramer vs. Kramer
• Program Quiz Answers

1

Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Click anywhere on page to view show in its entirety

LEGAL DISCLAIMER

TRAINING

All training methods and procedures presented in this Working Fire Training (WFT) video program and training
materials are based on IFSTA, NFPA, NIOSH, OSHA and all other relevant industry regulations and standards and
are presented as a part of generally accepted and acknowledged practices in the U.S. Fire Service. WFT should be
used under the supervision of certified trainers in conjunction with national, state, and local training standards and
protocols, and the standard operating guides and procedures of the Subscriber. WFT is intended to be an ancillary
source of training information and should not be used as the sole source of training for any emergency service
organization. WFT accepts no responsibility for how the Subscriber implements or integrates this program into the
Subscriber’s own training program, nor does the use of this program by the Subscriber imply that WFT approves or
endorses any specific training methods presented by the Subscriber to its own organization. WFT accepts no
responsibility for the correct understanding or application of its training methods and procedures by emergency
service personnel who view this program; nor for any performance or lack of performance by emergency service
personnel who may view this program and use or apply these training methods and procedures incorrectly; nor does
it accept any liability for injuries or deaths of emergency service personnel who may view this program and use or
apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly. By presenting this program for viewing to its organization’s
members, the Subscriber, and by viewing or reading materials presented by WFT, the members and students of the
Subscriber, agree to hold harmless WFT, the University of Cincinnati, VFIS, and any persons or organizations who
participate in the creation and/or presentation of this training material from any legal action which might result from
any line-of-duty injuries or deaths of the Subscriber’s members or any other emergency service personnel who view
this program and who may use or apply such training methods and procedures incorrectly.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• A pre-dawn fire was reported in a unit at the rear of a
three-story apartment building occupied by several
Boston University students
• Class 3 ordinary construction, wood frame with brick
veneer.
• The building was an occupied multiple dwelling with
students from nearby universities.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Upon arrival, the fire was moving rear-to-front on
floors 2 and 3.
• There was good access to the building on three
sides.
• There were reports of people trapped on the third
floor.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Initially, four companies were committed to floors 2
and 3.
– Two companies for fire suppression and maintenance of
the stairwell
– Two companies for search & rescue and fire suppression
on floor 3.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

INCIDENT COMMAND
• An engine company deployed an attack line to hold
the fire in check while a ladder company conducted
a search.
• I.C. committed additional resources to the third
floor to expand the search.
• Mutual aid departments responded from City of
Boston, Cambridge, and Newton Fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• Vertical ventilation by opening the roof.
• Set up a runner system to back up faulty
communications channel.
– This was done on a timely basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• Crews entered simultaneously, conducting fire
suppression and search & rescue.
• Volume of fire was a major obstacle to
occupants once it burst into the living areas.
• Vertical ventilation through the roof allowed
location of victim.
• The fire was under control in an hour.
• Cause of the fire was a charcoal grill left
unattended on a wooden porch.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

EVENTS
• In this jurisdiction it was prohibited by law to
barbeque on combustible surfaces like a
wooden porch.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

REMARKS
• Some smoke detectors were in place and operating
• A few ABC extinguishers were on-premise.
• First-in companies encountered heavy fire conditions,
zero and visibility.
• Second communications channel encountered poor
reception and wasn’t reliable.
• Relied on a runner system for relaying messages.
• Victim’s death may have been alcohol-related.
• Lack of responsibility is a problem in off-campus
housing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

STATISTICS
• Sixty-five percent of 17 million college students live
off-campus.
• 2,000 on-/off-campus fires occur annually.
• 80% of student fire fatalities occur off-campus.
• An average of 70 students are injured every year.
• On average, 15 college students a year died in fires in
this decade.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Off-campus housing tends to be older and not as wellmaintained as residence halls.
• Off-campus housing typically has fewer life-safety
features than on-campus residence halls, such as fire
alarms, sprinklers, adequate egress, etc.
• Often there are no restrictions on the use of candles,
smoking, halogen lamps or other ignition sources.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

OFF-CAMPUS HOUSING
• Electrical service is often overloaded with computers
and peripherals, sound and video systems, etc.
• Without on-campus residence supervision, parties and
alcohol consumption are more likely.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

CAUSES OF ON-/OFF-CAMPUS FIRES
• Faulty electronics/frayed electrical cords/
open flames 34%
• Suspicious fires 29%
• Cooking 15%
• Unknown 11%

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Outreach program for students is needed.
• Information for students:
– Be aware of your surroundings and where exits are
– Because of prank false alarms, students often disregard fire
alarms.
– Always take alarms seriously.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire
LESSONS LEARNED
• Always train on the basics, including:
– strong knowledge of ladder operations
– proper way to run hose lines
– interior coordination.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
Off-Campus Residence Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• Getting sufficient help there on a timely basis is of
ultimate importance.
– The Brookline Fire Department has always maintained a
minimum of one officer and three firefighters in every
company.

• Firefighters should remember that their observations
can be the key to help determine a fire’s cause.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

DISPATCH/SIZE-UP
• Crews were dispatched to an abandoned bank
building over 20 stories tall.
• The building was in the process of being dismantled.
• Fire was out of control on the 17th floor.
• No sprinklers were in operation.
• The building standpipe was inoperable.
• Sources said that only one of two construction
elevators was working.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

STRATEGY/TACTICS
• Hoses had to be pulled up from the street using
ropes and haul systems.
• Hose crews attacked the fire.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INCIDENT COMMAND
• A pre-fire plan had been written for the building but
was found later.
• It recommended regular inspections of the building.
• 275 firefighters responded to the 7-alarm blaze.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

EVENTS
• The building had been undergoing a floor-byfloor dismantling.
– It was also involved in asbestos abatement, resulting
in a heavy, toxic, flammable fire load.

• The two firefighter fatalities occurred on the
14th floor: Joseph Graffagnino and Robert
Beddia, while working a hoseline.
• According to a news source, following a
Mayday they were overcome by smoke, the
oxygen in their tanks having been depleted.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

REMARKS
• There is no working system for the fire
department to be notified of a building being
constructed or demolished.
– Inspectors must recognize them by sight as they
drive around.

• The cause of the fire is still being investigated,
but may have been linked to a deconstruction
crew working at the site before the fire broke
out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire
INSPECTIONS
• Codes in New York City call for inspections of buildings
under demolition every 15 days. This was not being
done.
• Sources say that fire department management had to
have known that the inspections were not being done.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

INSPECTIONS
• The explanation was that the inspections
were stopped because of concerns of
contaminants in the building and the
safety of inspectors.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

SPRINKLERS
• Codes also require working sprinkler systems
that can be shut off one floor at a time as
workers begin to work on a floor.
• A fire department official said the sprinklers
broke during the 2001 terrorist attacks and
were never repaired, while a spokesman for the
building's owner said regulators shut the
sprinklers off after 9/11 because pumps driving
the water were contaminated.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• FDNY has yet to come out with recommendations
regarding future actions resulting from this incident.
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known:
– Large, abandoned structures are dangerous because of their
potential to kill.
– All structures need an up-to-date and accessible preplan. See
NFPA 1620, Recommended Practice for Pre-Incident Planning.
– Building owners should be charged with:
• maintaining sprinklers, or at least charged hoselines, where
construction work with open flames is going on.
• maintaining access to the building through functioning elevators,
etc.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident:
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire

LESSONS LEARNED
• But some issues can be addressed from what is known
(cont.):
– Inspections must be conducted regularly with inspectors
wearing SCBA or other appropriate breathing apparatus.
– The fire department should look into retired or
off-duty firefighters to handle these inspections, paid for by the
building owner and/or demolition contractor.
– A review of NFPA 241, Standard for Safeguarding Construction,
Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 1452, Guide for
Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Dwelling Fire Safety
Surveys; and NFPA 51B, Standard for Fire Prevention During
Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work should be a part of any
future recommendations.
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07-5 Training Materials

Fireline Incident Discussion
The departments involved in this month’s training
and WFT pose some discussion questions that you
can use as discussion-starters in your own
department’s training sessions.
How will your department handle these scenarios?

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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
Off-Campus Residence Fire / Brookline, MA
Deputy Chief Keith Flaherty, Brookline (MA) Fire Department
Deputy Chief/Investigator Steve Sweeney, Brookline (MA) Fire
Department
• If you have colleges/universities in your jurisdiction, you have off-campus
student housing. Do you make any special provision for these residences in
the way of extra or more frequent inspections?
• Meet with school officials/building owners and see if you can get their support
for a fire safety program geared to both on- and off-campus housing.
• If you have a fire in student housing, accountability of residents is a high
priority. Because of the comings and goings of residents, getting an accurate
reading of who’s at home is difficult, especially during parties.
• Encourage students to maintain fire extinguishers and instruct them on their
use. Also encourage them to call 911 EARLY in the event of an incident.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fireline Incident Discussion
FINAL REPORT: Deutsche Bank Building Fire / New York, NY

• This incident points up a number of glaring deficiencies in city/
municipal systems:
– What are the policies on the inspection and operation of buildings under
deconstruction in your jurisdiction? Are they followed? If not, address
the reasons why not.
– Don’t let politics or finger-pointing put firefighter lives in jeopardy!
– Does your city or jurisdiction have a system to notify the fire department
about buildings under construction or deconstruction? See NFPA 241.
– What should be the responsibility of building owners and/or contractors
regarding maintaining a safe working environment for workers, or if need
be, for firefighters?
– Think about writing special preplans for buildings under construction
and/or deconstruction. They pose specific hazards that should be dealt
with in advance. This will involve updating these preplans regularly
based on building inspections. See NFPA 1452.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• how to perform a self-rescue from a basement using a
variety of methods.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational
Safety and Health Programs.
• Department SOGs on in-service limits of rescue ropes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• A firefighter in another department was severely
burned after she fell into a basement.
– This highlighted the need for developing training props
which would help keep firefighter safe.

• A simulated basement wall with a window was
constructed.
– Several techniques were developed on how to self-rescue
ourselves if we get trapped.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
PURPOSE OF TRAINING
• Firefighters should train yearly or more often on
these techniques.
– If you train regularly on something often enough, it will
become second nature.
– It's important for firefighters to develop confidence that
they can rescue themselves if they get caught in an
unusual situation.
– This confidence can be reinforced by frequent use of the
training prop.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
BASEMENT WINDOW SIMULATION
• The training facility has a basement window buck at
the 8-foot level.
– Both seven- and nine-foot ceilings exist in our district.
This offers a good compromise.

• With TGI floor joists and the way floor systems are
constructed now, floor failure is more likely and
firefighters have a greater chance of ending up in the
basement.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Preparation:
– Firefighters are encouraged to carry extra tools with them
which would include a length of webbing.
– For this technique, you’ll need a short length of webbing
and a Halligan bar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure
– This move is basically a window bail-out in reverse.
Actually, it’s a window “bail-up.”
– First, using a Halligan bar, take a short length of webbing
and tie a girth hitch about halfway down the shaft from the
head.
– Break the glass in the basement window if it’s still there.
– Reach up and placed the Halligan vertically on the outside
of the window frame. Pull it tight with the webbing so it will
hold in place.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Make a loop by tying a knot in the free end of the webbing.
The loop can be used as a step.
– Remove your helmet, reach up, and place it outside the
window.
– Insert your foot into the webbing. Don’t step up yet.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Procedure (cont.)
– Remove your SCBA and place it on the window sill.
• Be sure and keep your hand on it. If there is a drop-off on the
outside of the window, do not let it fall to the ground outside!
• If no drop-off, slide to the ground outside.

– Step up using the loop as a step.
– Slide your SCBA to the ground outside.
• Again, if there is a drop-off on outside, you must hang onto
your SCBA as you climb through!

– Pull your body up and through the window.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– As you remove your air pack in preparation for sliding out the
window, hold onto your mask and keep the supply line side of
your air pack on your shoulder until you remove it to slide it
through the window.
– Some firefighters will remove the air pack from both shoulders
and slide it through. That’s may not be a good idea.
• Should there be a drop-off on the other side, and you lose control
of your air pack, your mask will be ripped off your face, leaving
you in the basement without your air pack.
• Always maintain control of your air pack!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE

-- Webbing & window “bail-up”
• Tips
– This is very similar to the low-profile move you
would do in a breaching scenario where you must
remove your pack in order to slide between joists.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure
– Prepare your Halligan bar and webbing as you did before
but use a longer piece of webbing.
– Reach up and place the Halligan outside the corner of the
window frame, just beyond the edge of the frame.
– Stretch the webbing out with one of your hands and at
about knee level, place your foot on the webbing, pulling
the webbing up around your foot.
• This will form a loop around your foot you can use as a step.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Webbing step created by handhold
• Procedure (cont.)
– Grab the webbing in your hand and the webbing coming
down from the window together and hold both at a level
high enough to adjust the height of the loop/step.
– Put your foot in the loop and step up.
– Pull yourself up and slide your upper body through the
window as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure
• Place the point of your Halligan on the floor, leaning it
against the wall below the window.
– Most concrete floors will have some roughness to hold it,
but you will still need to place a foot against the base of the
Halligan as a support so it won't slide out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• Take your other foot and step up on the head of the
Halligan, using it as a step.
• As you do this, slide your bottom foot up the
Halligan, applying pressure as you go. This will keep
the Halligan from sliding out as you step up on it.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
HALLIGAN BAR ESCAPE
-- Halligan used as a step
Procedure (cont.)
• If the floor is slippery, use the pick end of the
Halligan and chisel or hammer a purchase point in
the concrete which will give your Halligan point a
foothold.
• Then proceed as before.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
1. True or False:

The Halligan tool might just save your life.

2. True or False:

As long as your mask is attached to your face,
it’s okay to lose control of your air pack.

3. True or False:

There’s bound to be someone outside the
basement window who can help you.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.
b. Placed the Halligan outside the window frame – Tie a knot making a
loop to use as a step – Place SCBA on window sill – Step up – Slide
SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

c. Tie a knot making a loop to use as a step – Place the Halligan
outside the window frame – Step up – Place SCBA on window sill –
Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself up and out.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: Firefighter Survival Skills/Self-Rescue, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which procedure order is correct?
a. Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on Halligan head with the
other – Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace
base of Halligan with one foot – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
b. Brace base of Halligan with one foot – Create a purchase point for
Halligan, if necessary – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.

c. Create a purchase point for Halligan, if necessary – Brace base of
Halligan with one foot – Slide bottom foot up Halligan as you step on
Halligan head with the other – Slide SCBA out – Pull yourself out.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the nature of gases
• how to calibrate an air monitor and its importance
• how to test for oxygen, flammability ranges, and toxicity.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• OSHA 29 CFR 1910.146, Permit-Required Confined
Spaces
• ANSI Z117.1-1989, Safety Requirements for Confined
Spaces
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TRAINING PARTNER: AERT
(American Emergency Rescue Training)
• AERT provides emergency response training to
emergency teams across the United States with
mobile "live" fire and Confined Space Rescue
training units.
• Training is also provided at fixed site facilities
outside Mobile, Alabama and in St. Thomas, U.S.
Virgin Islands.
• All AERT programs meet and/or exceed OSHA and
NFPA required training regulations and standards.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING COMPETENCY
• Using your monitoring equipment, you should be as
comfortable checking manhole or confined space as
you would checking a storage tank.
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Consider all confined space atmospheres as
hazardous.
• Know how to use your monitor
• Test the atmosphere correctly
– First, test for oxygen, then flammability and finally, toxicity.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• Oxygen should be checked first because the monitor
requires a specific amount of oxygen to work
correctly.
• If the oxygen concentration is not correct, then the
meter gives a false flammability rating.
• What is the normal percentage of oxygen in the air?
20.9%!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• OSHA Limits
– Oxygen deficient atmosphere is below 19.5%.
– Oxygen enriched atmosphere is over 23.5%

• Within that range you may work in that atmosphere
or confined space.
• If your monitor is not reading 20.9, the operator
should find out why it's not.
– You should find out the source of the oxygen deficiency or
enrichment.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
ATMOSPHERIC MONITORING
• In a typical room, the atmosphere is 20.9% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, and 1% of other gases.
– We breathe approximately 3 times more nitrogen than
oxygen in every breath we take.

• Suppose we take a reading in a room and the oxygen
level is 17.9%. What has happened to the other 3%?
– There is no 3% vacuum floating around in that space.
– Some unknown gas has taken the place of 3% of the
oxygen.
– It’s important to find out what gas that is.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• Monitoring:
– Is used to assess the health risk to rescuers
– leads to the selection of proper PPE and breathing
apparatus
– may be the determination between rescue or recovery
– helps maintain a safe atmosphere.

• If you respond to a rescue, re-check the atmosphere
with your own equipment.
– Don't take the word of the plant manager, contractor or
contact on scene or trust their equipment!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING DATA
• When performing a rescue, don't follow normal
confined space procedures for monitoring
atmospheres by checking every five minutes.
• You should be continuously monitoring while
rescuers are in the space.
– You want to know instantly if anything changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING PROCEDURES
• First, check that the oxygen level is between 19.5%
and 23.5%.
• Second, determine if any flammable/explosive gases
are present.
• Finally, check for any toxic gases.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
– The minimum amount of a gas or vapor in the air that will
explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source
– This minimum level is expressed as a percentage
– This percentage is the amount that is actually present.
– Each flammable gas LEL is different.
– Not all gases have an LEL -- only flammable gases do.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Flammability Range
– The minimum/maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air
that will explode/burn when exposed to an ignition source.
– The flammable range is a “sweet spot” in between which
the gas/vapor will burn.
– All flammable ranges are not the same! Some gases burn
at 2% concentration; some take 50% before they will burn.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– The maximum amount of a gas or vapor in the air over
which the gas or vapor will not explode/burn when exposed
to an ignition source.
– Over this level the gas/vapor is too “rich” to burn.
– Example: You’re monitoring a space and the monitor reads
a very high level and then shuts off. What has happened?
The monitor has switched into “Safe Mode.”

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Monitors won't read past the point of the UEL.
When gas concentrations get too high, they go into
Safe Mode so they won’t burn themselves up.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
FLAMMABILITY
• Upper Explosive Limit (UEL)
– Even though the level of gas is too rich to burn, as we
begin to ventilate the space, the gas level will come down
into the flammable range.
– That can be very dangerous if we have people in the space.
Be aware of this!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• A CGI measures the concentration of a flammable
vapor or gas in the air.
– The reading is given as a percentage of LEL.
– In other words, it's a percentage of a percentage.

• As an example, if you are measuring methane, which
has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 50% of the
LEL, then what we really have is a measure of 2.5%
of methane, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATOR (CGI)
• The reading does NOT mean that half of our
space is occupied by the methane!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Pentane
1.4% LEL 8% UEL Flammable Range: 6.6% spread
– Over the full range of pentane's gas concentration, it is
only flammable in this narrow 6.6% range.
– The bulk of the gas’ concentration is too rich to burn. In
fact, it would be difficult to get the appropriate
concentration of pentane in air in order to achieve ignition.
– Pentane’s LEL at 1.4% is pretty low, but its flammable range
is similar to about 32 other common gases that are around
us every day.
– But its low LEL is why we use pentane as a calibration gas.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Xylene
.9% LEL 7% UEL Flammable Range: 6.1% spread

• Methane
5% LEL 10% UEL Flammable Range: 10% spread
– Any gas with a flammable range wider than 10% is listed as
a Highly Flammable Gas.

• Hydrogen
4% LEL 74% UEL Flammable Range: 70% spread
– Another Highly Flammable Gas!
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
VARIOUS GAS EXAMPLES
• Acetylene
.7% LEL 100% UEL Flammable Range: 99.3% spread
– It’s never too rich to burn.
– The old story about sucking a flame back into the acetylene
cylinder CAN happen!
– Acetylene is a very common gas found at every construction
site and plant. Be watching for it!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Present with rotting vegetation; sewer gases.
• It has an identifying odor, but then it seems to pass away. Yet
the meter still reads a high concentration of H2S.
• The gas is still present, but olfactory fatigue has made it
odorless. Don't trust your nose -- trust the meter!
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 10 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 100 ppm
• LEL – 4%; Air Density – 1.2 (Air = 1.0)
• Characteristic Smell – “Rotten Eggs”
• Special Hazard – Olfactory Fatigue
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Present where vehicles are running; dewatering the space with a
gasoline-powered pump, etc.
• Carbon monoxide does more than just displace oxygen. If that
were the case, people exposed to CO would turn purple, not pink.
• The human body has an attraction to CO that is 600 times greater
than that of oxygen. Upon intake, CO blocks oxygen absorption,
yet the body can't do anything with it.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 25 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 1200 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon monoxide (CO) (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – 12.5%
Air Density – 1.0 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – The body’s natural attraction to CO is 600 times
greater than that for oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2
• Present in fire suppression systems in electrical vaults
underground.
• These should be locked out before we commit personnel to these
spaces! Don’t forget Lock-Out/Tag-Out!
• How bad can CO2 be? Our body breathes it out with every exhale.
It wants to displace oxygen and leave no room for it in our
bodies. This is why asphyxiation can result from too much CO2.
• TLV (Threshold Limit Value) – 5000 ppm
• IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) – 40,000 ppm

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
TOXICITY
• Common Toxins
– Carbon dioxide CO2 (cont.)
•
•
•
•

LEL – Non-combustible
Air Density – 1.5 (Air = 1.0)
Characteristic Smell – None
Special Hazard – Displaces oxygen, feels cold

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• For an instrument to function properly in the field, it
must be calibrated.
• Calibration involves the instrument being “zeroed” to a
known concentration of a specific test gas.
• The most common gas used for calibration is pentane.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
CALIBRATION
• One thing that seems to go wrong on a regular basis
with air monitors is the oxygen sensor. They need to
be replaced often.
– One suggestion would be to see if local industry near your fire
District uses air monitors that are compatible with yours.
– If so, suggest a program of rotation with industry so that they
can perform regular calibrations on your units as they cycle
them through.
– Many industries would be willing to cooperate on this basis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• What monitor do you have?
• Have you been trained on it?
• Has the monitor been calibrated lately and to what gas?
• Are you sampling correctly?
• Have you allowed time for the sample to be taken?
• What are you sampling?
• Is the gas a floater or a sinker?
• Has the air changed since your last sample?
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Sample at all levels!
– If you know what gas you are sampling for, you might know its
relative weight and whether it's a floater or a sinker, and
therefore, know at what level you might find it.
• Carbon Monoxide tends to mix with air so you’ll find it
somewhere in the middle.

– Most of the time you won't know what you are sampling for, so
you must sample at all levels.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Know how long it takes for your monitor to read a
sample.
– During calibration, take a stopwatch and time how long the
monitor reads the sample.
– Then when you're in the field, you will know how long to
sample at each level.
• Then leave a little extra time for a safety factor.

– The amount of time it takes your monitor to read a sample
might be affected by how fresh its batteries are, so leave a
little extra time.
• The time may also vary depending on whether you are using a
telescoping probe or flexible tubing.
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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
AIR MONITORING TECHNIQUES
• Turn your monitor on in a clean atmosphere
– Be in clean air to start.
– Have no combustion engines running nearby.
– The monitor thinks that the first breath of air it reads
contains a good sample of oxygen; it's very trusting that way.

• If you forget and turn the monitor on after you've
lowered it into the space where the oxygen level is 5%,
it will monitor that sample as 20.9% oxygen!

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
MONITORING PROCEDURES
• Turn the monitor on in fresh air.
• Let the monitor calibrate itself.
• Lower the test hose/probe into the space.
• Stop at high, medium, and low levels.
• Give it time to sample.
• Continuously monitor the space.
• Record and report your findings to the IC.

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07-5 Training Materials
Hands-On:
AERT Atmospheres Class
WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
• Monitoring the atmosphere before entry could save
your life.
• Know how to operate the brand of monitor that is
provided.
• Oxygen levels should be checked first.
• Toxicity should be checked after oxygen and LEL.
• Continuously monitor throughout the confined space
event in case the atmosphere changes.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

Atmospheres always read the same at all
levels.

2. True or False:

It’s okay to work in an 18.5 oxygen
atmosphere.

3. True or False:

During a rescue, checking the atmosphere
every 5 minutes as specified by code, is
sufficient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Fill in the blanks:
4. Regarding CGI readings:
a. if a gas has an LEL of 5%, and the CGI measures 20% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
b. if a gas has an LEL of 10%, and the CGI measures 50% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
c. if a gas has an LEL of 8%, and the CGI measures 10% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.
d. if a gas has an LEL of 40%, and the CGI measures 30% of the LEL,
then there is __% of the gas, by volume, in the space.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: AERT Atmospheres Class
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which is correct?
a. Turn the monitor on anywhere. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
b. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. –
Lower the test hose/probe into the space. --- Stop at high, medium,
and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.

c. Turn the monitor on in fresh air. -- Lower the test hose/probe into
the space. -- Let the monitor calibrate itself. --- Stop at high,
medium, and low levels. -- Continuously monitor the space.
(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
After watching this segment, the student shall understand:
• the forces at work in vehicle crashes.
• how certain impacts cause certain injuries
• how certain injuries can be anticipated/expected from
certain crashes.

CODES, STANDARDS & REGULATIONS
• Pre-hospital Trauma Life Support Training,
National Association of Emergency Medical
Technicians and the American College of Surgeons.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
MECHANISM OF INJURY
• What can we learn by looking at the vehicle and the
patient?
• What could be damaged based on what we are
seeing?
• This information can be very helpful, especially if we
cannot talk to the patient.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion
mass (weight) X velocity (speed)2
KE =
2
OR
½ mv2
KE =
2
• Velocity has a bigger impact on collisions than mass.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• We don't create or destroy it, but energy gets
transferred around.
• Newton's first Law:
A body at rest stays at rest and a
body in motion stays in motion
until acted upon by another force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In terms of vehicle accidents and collisions, we have
three collisions:
– The vehicle striking an object
– The driver continues moving forward until he/she hits
something
– The driver’s innards keep moving until they hit something.

• Organs, both hollow and solid, can be compressed
within the body.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ENERGY TRANSFER = INDEX OF SUSPICION
• The more damage to the vehicle, the more damage to
the occupant.
– But not always. Sometimes the vehicle is a wreck, but the
occupant is untouched.
– Conversely, sometimes the vehicle is barely scratched and
the occupant is dead.

• It all depends as to whether the vehicle or the
occupant absorbs the energy.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
COMPRESSION INJURIES
• Watch for this: the steering wheel is bent, and then
you see a red mark across the abdomen -- which has
not yet become a bruise.
SHEAR INJURIES
• These injuries are caught more now than they used
to be.
• We need to examine the stresses and forces from the
accident and anticipate where the injuries will occur.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac:
– Remember your heart hangs inside your chest like a
pendulum, held in place by a ligament which comes down
from the aortic arch.
– That ligament can be pulled and create a tear in the aortic
arch.
– Previously, patients with this injury were conscious, had
good vitals, stabilized blood pressure, exhibited no
external symptoms, and x-rays showed no broken bones.
By the next morning they’d be dead.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cardiac
– Cause of death was an aneurism due to the
continued tearing of the aortic arch.
– Now, a CT scan or MRI can reveal this injury.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracked windshield
– Based on whether the windshield is pushed in or out will
tell you from which direction the force occurred.
– Perhaps something external caused the damage if the
windshield is pushed in.
– If you see no blood, skin, or hair on the windshield, the
crack may be due from an external force.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Cracks or breaks in windshields could be caused by:
–
–
–
–

the impact of the head and neck
airbags
a loose object in the vehicle
torquing or twisting of the vehicle on impact.

• Head & Neck Injury
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, brain, spinal
cord
– Any time a patient has a head injury, we assume there is
also a neck injury until proven otherwise.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
SHEAR INJURIES
• Torso Injury
– Injuries to: ribs, heart and lungs, abdominal organs, pelvic
area, major vessels, long bones (femur)
– For example, a kidney injury: one suspect might be the
artery leading to a kidney.

• Extremities
– Injuries to: bones, ligaments, soft tissues, blood vessels.
– Twisting injuries to extremities such as feet and ankles
might result from rapid braking or de-acceleration.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Frontal
Impact –
the vehicle
runs into
something.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rear Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
behind.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Lateral
Impact –
the vehicle is
struck from
the side.
• Also called a
“T-Bone”

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rotational
impact –
the vehicle
spins on its
horizontal
axis.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
VEHICLE CRASHES - DIFFERENT IMPACTS
• Rollover –
The vehicle
spins sideover-side.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – UP & OVER
• Up & Over
Path –
The body is
launched
over the
steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT – DOWN & UNDER
• Down &
Under Path –
The body
slides under
the steering
wheel and
column.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
FRONTAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Injuries are similar in both Up & Over and Down &
Under crashes:
–
–
–
–
–

Head injuries
Spine injuries
Chest injuries
Abdominal injuries
Fractured pelvis, hip

REAR IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck injuries, whiplash
• Possible concussion
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Chest/abdomen
• Pelvis and hips
– These are dangerous injuries because of the direction of
energy force.

• Neck/shoulder
– The head and neck was not made to rotate side to side so
paramedics should be very careful about C-spine
involvement.
– In such an accident be watchful to see if the patient is “selfsplinting", where she lifts her shoulders up against her
neck for support.
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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
LATERAL IMPACT – EXPECTED INJURIES
• Neck/shoulder (cont.)
– This is a definite sign of a lateral impact injury
and they are difficult to immobilize with a
cervical collar.

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07-5 Training Materials
Fire Medics:
PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
ROTATIONAL IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• Mostly all of the above because of the variety of
energy forces involved, tossing the occupants in
different directions.
• Airbags may protect against the initial impact, but
because they deflate so quickly, they give no
protection against subsequent hits.

ROLLOVER IMPACT - EXPECTED INJURIES
• primarily head and neck resulting from repeated
lateral forces and movement, forcing the head and
neck from side to side.
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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
1. True or False:

It’s not possible to predict injuries based on
the accident.

2. True or False:

Speed is a greater dynamic force in a crash
than weight.

3. True or False:

During a collision incident, there are really
four collisions taking place.

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
4. Based on the evidence, circle the type of crash:
a. Aortic arch tear: shear, frontal, rotational, rear impact
b. Twisted ankle: extremities, rapid braking, torquing, frontal
c. Head injury: up & over, twisting, spine, rollover
d. Windshield pushed in: frontal impact, shear, tree limb, side

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07-5 Training Materials
Quiz: PHTLS Training 1: Kinematics of Trauma, Pt. 1
Date___________ Firefighter/PM____________________
Chief/T.O.___________________ Education Credits _____
Select the best answer:
5. Which does not belong?
a. Bent steering wheel
b. Down & Under
c. Frontal Impact
d. Bruised ear

e. None of the above

(Answers on Slide 112)
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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
If you’re enrolled in the Open Learning Fire Science Program
at the University of Cincinnati, complete written responses to
the following three essay questions to earn one college
credit hour for watching Working Fire Training.
Kramer vs. Kramer
Buildings Under Demolition - Inspection Policy
1. How advisable is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under

demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
2. How practical is it for fire departments to inspect buildings under
demolition on a frequent basis (for example, every two weeks)?
3. How would you make this policy a reality in YOUR fire
department?

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07-5 Training Materials

Evolutions 2000 – Continuing Education
Send your responses to:

Professor Bill Kramer
University of Cincinnati
College of Applied Science
2220 Victory Parkway, ML #103
Cincinnati, Ohio 45206
ENROLLMENT INFORMATION:

For more information on enrolling in the Open Learning program to
gain college credit, call Working Fire Training at 800-516-3473 for a
brochure or, to register directly, call the University of Cincinnati at 513556-6583. Associates and Bachelors programs are available. Call to
have your transcripts evaluated.
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Working Fire Training
07-5 Training Materials
Thanks so much for viewing
Working Fire Training!
See you next month – stay safe!

TRAINING

Answers:
Hands-On –
Firefighter Survival Skills: Self-Rescue, Pt. 1: Quiz on Slides 46-48:
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. b 5. c
AERT Atmospheres Class: Quiz on Slides 81-83;
1. False 2. False 3. False 4. 1%, 5%, .8%, 12% 5. b
Fire Medics –
PHTLS Training 1: Quiz on Slides 107-109:
1. False 2. True 3. False 4. shear, rapid braking, up & over, tree limb
5. d
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