PILOT NAVIGATION Senior/Master Air Cadet Learning Outcomes Know the basic features of air navigation and navigational aids Understand the techniques of flight planning Understand the.
Download ReportTranscript PILOT NAVIGATION Senior/Master Air Cadet Learning Outcomes Know the basic features of air navigation and navigational aids Understand the techniques of flight planning Understand the.
Slide 1
PILOT NAVIGATION
Senior/Master Air Cadet
Slide 2
Learning Outcomes
Know the basic features of air navigation and
navigational aids
Understand the techniques of flight planning
Understand the affects of weather on aviation
Slide 3
Flight Planning
Slide 4
Introduction
In Air Navigation, we discussed the
Triangle of Velocities
We shall now revise the components
of the Triangle and learn how this
helps us to plan a flight.
Finally, we will learn how to co-ordinate
our sortie with other agencies
Slide 5
Triangle of Velocities
Comprises 3 vectors drawn to scale
One side shows movement of the aircraft
(a vector being a component of the
in still air (HDG & TAS)
Triangle, having both direction & speed)
Another shows wind speed & direction (W/V)
The third shows actual movement of the
aircraft over the surface of the earth (TK &
G/S), resulting from the other 2 vectors
Slide 6
Triangle of Velocities
Thus there are 6 components
Wind Speed
Aircraft Heading
Track
Wind Direction
True Airspeed
Groundspeed
Slide 7
Solution of the Triangle
As long as we have 4 of the components
it can be solved by a number of methods:
Scale drawing on graph paper or map/chart
Dalton dead-reckoning Computer
Mental arithmetic
Micro computers
Slide 8
Flight Planning
Both in private aviation & military training,
flight planning is carried out using a
Pilot Nav Log Card
On this card the flight is divided
into a number of legs
Slide 9
LEG
1
2
3
4
5
To
H eading
H eight
FL
IA S
M ach
T im e
ETA
F
U
E
L
R em ainin g
R equired
S afety A ltitude
TAS
T rack
D istance
W /V
T em p
G /S
V arn
Pilot Nav
Log Card
Slide 10
Flight Planning
Before flight, the Triangle Of Velocities
is solved for each leg
However, to do this, more information is
required
Slide 11
Flight Planning
First, the pilot needs to know the Tracks
and Distances of the various legs
So he draws them on a route chart
We will now plan a VFR Tutor flight from
Leeming to Marham via Cottesmore at
3000ft AMSL
Slide 12
Leeming
Cottesmore
COT
Marham MAR
Slide 13
Flight Planning
For the purposes of our exercise, we have
ignored any airspace issues or any
airspace changes since this version of the
chart was produced
Slide 14
The forecast wind is 180/30 for the first leg
Producing a headwind (G/S < TAS) and some port drift
180/30
The forecast wind is 220/25 for Leg 2
Producing a crosswind with port drift, plus a
tailwind
220/25
Slide 15
Flight Planning - Log Entries
The Pilot must enter some Log Card details
before solving the Triangle of Velocities:
Track
Measured With A Protractor
Distance
Measured from map/chart against the Latitude
scale or using a Nav ruler of same scale
Slide 16
LEG
1
2
To
COT MAR
Heading
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
ETA
F Remaining
U
E Required
L
Safety Altitude
TAS
Track
161
096
98
44
Distance
W/V
Temp
G/S
Varn
3
4
5
Slide 17
Flight Planning - Log Entries
Altitude or Height for each leg
Decided by operational, weather, safety & other needs
Forecast W/V
Forecast Air Temperature (Temp)
Indicated Air Speed (IAS)
Normally The Recommending Cruising Speed
Slide 18
Flight Planning - Log Entries
True Airspeed (TAS)
Calculated from the IAS/RAS & Air
Temperature using a Dalton Computer
Variation (Varn)
Found on the map/chart
Slide 19
Flight Planning – Obtaining TAS
To obtain TAS using the Dalton Computer
Set forecast temp
+10C against 3000ft
From a 120kt
IAS/RAS on the
inner scale
We can obtain 125kt
TAS on the outer
Slide 20
LEG
1
To
2
COT MAR
Heading
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
3000 3000
120 120
Time
ETA
F Remaining
U
E Required
L
Safety Altitude
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
Varn
2W 2W
3
4
5
Slide 21
Solving the Triangle of Velocities
First we will use graph paper
Later we will use the
Dalton Computer
The theory is the same but, as you will
see, the Dalton Computer is quicker
Slide 22
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Once Track, Distance & TAS are
known for each leg, the Triangle of
Velocities can be used to calculate:
The Heading to counter the
wind & fly the desired Track
The Groundspeed (G/S)
Slide 23
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
We already have 4 of the 6
elements of the triangle (1st leg)
Wind Direction
180ºT
Wind Speed
30 Kt
Track
161ºT
TAS
125 Kt
Slide 24
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
We first draw the W/V from the direction
180º & give it a length of 3 units
(to represent 30 Kt)
W/V
NORTH (TRUE)
Slide 25
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Next, at the downwind end of the W/V
draw the Track & G/S line on the
reciprocal of 161ºT, for an unknown length
This length
denoting G/S is
one element we will
discover
Slide 26
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
All we currently know is that G/S will be less
than our TAS of 125 Kt
Slide 27
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Next, from the upwind end of the W/V line,
draw an arc representing TAS to a length of
12.5 graph units (125 knots), until it crosses
the Track & G/S line
Then, with a protractor, measure the
direction of the resultant Heading line &
the length of the G/S line
Slide 28
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Heading/TAS (12.5 units)
Drift
(Heading direction to be
measured)
Track 161T & G/S (to be measured)
W/V
3 units
Slide 29
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
We calculate that the length of the
Track & G/S line is 9.6 units, so the
G/S Will Be 96 Kt
Slide 30
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Using a protractor, the Heading is 166ºT
We can now apply the Varn of 2ºW to
166º(T) to give a Heading of 168º(M)
(True to Compass add West)
After entering this information on the Log Card,
we can then calculate the Leg 1 time by using
a G/S of 96knots & distance of 98nm
Slide 31
Leg Time Calculation - Dalton Computer
To calculate leg time – for Leg 1 put the black
triangle under the 96 Kt G/S on outer scale
Then against the 98 nm distance on the outer scale
Extract a leg time of 61.3 mins on the inner scale
Repeat the exercise for Leg 2, to Marham
Slide 32
LEG
1
To
2
3
4
5
COT MAR
Heading
168M 108M
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
3000 3000
120 120
61.3
19.5
ETA
F Remaining
U
E Required
L
Safety Altitude
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
96
Varn
2W 2W
136
Notice that the info
we will need readily
at each turning
point, is at the top.
Info that can be
referred to in
slower time, is
further down the
card
Slide 33
Triangle of Velocities – Dalton Computer
For Leg 1, put on the
W/V 180/30
First, turn the dial until
180 or S is at the top
Then, put a mark 30kts
below the centre circle
Slide 34
Triangle of Velocities – Dalton Computer
Next, turn the dial until
Track 161 is at the top
Then, ensuring that the
centre circle is over the
TAS 125kts
Observe that there will be
5 degrees port drift
In order to fly the desired
Track of 161, we will have
to offset for the drift
Slide 35
Triangle of Velocities – Dalton Computer
We offset for the drift by
turning the dial the opposite
way - in this case 5
degrees right of Track 161
This gives us a Heading of
166(T), still with 5 degrees
port drift
It also gives us 96Kts G/S
Slide 36
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Repeat the process for Leg 2
(remembering to change the wind)
You can see that by using the
Dalton Computer, we can solve
the Triangle of Velocities more
rapidly and conveniently than by
scale drawing
Slide 37
Flight Planning - ETA
If we wished to arrive overhead Marham
at a particular time, say 1000hrs, we can
now calculate a departure time from
overhead Leeming, in addition to a time
overhead Cottesmore
Flight time is 61.3 mins to Cottesmore
and 80.8 mins total to Marham
Therefore we can annotate our Log Card
with the desired times (ETA COT 0940.5,
ETA MAR 1000.0 & ETD LEE 0839.2
Slide 38
LEG
1
To
COT MAR
Heading
168M 108M
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
ETA
2
3000 3000
120 120
61.3
0839.2
19.5
0940.5 1000
F Remaining
U
E Required
L
Safety Altitude
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
96
Varn
2W 2W
136
3
4
5
Slide 39
Fuel Planning
Slide 40
Fuel Planning
One of the main purposes of calculating
flight times is to ensure sufficient fuel is
available
Running a car out of fuel will be inconvenient
In an aircraft…… it could be fatal
Slide 41
Fuel Planning
At the planned altitude and speed, the Tutor
consumes fuel at: 48 Kg an hour
48/60 X 61.3 mins = 49.0 Kg
So 49 Kg is needed for Leg 1
Similarly, for Leg 2, 16Kg is required
Total fuel required is therefore 49+16 = 65Kg,
although in reality, additional fuel would be
needed for Take-off, Recovery & Diversion
Slide 42
Fuel Planning
If we require 55 Kg minimum overhead
Marham for recovery and diversion purposes,
we can annotate our Log Card for fuel
Slide 43
LEG
1
To
COT MAR
Heading
168M 108M
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
ETA
2
3000 3000
120 120
61.3
0839.2
F Remaining
U
E Required
120
L
Safety Altitude
19.5
0940.5 1000
71
55
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
96
Varn
2W 2W
136
3
4
5
Slide 44
Other Information
The most important is the Safety Altitude
This is the altitude an aircraft must climb to
or not fly below in
Instrument Meteorological Conditions
(IMC)
Slide 45
Safety Altitude
This ensures the aircraft does not hit the
ground or obstacles such as TV masts
Slide 46
Safety Altitude
Safety Altitude is calculated by adding
1000ft to the highest elevation on or close
to the planned route (RAF use 30nm)
& rounding it up to the next 100ft
In mountainous regions, a greater safety
margin is added
Slide 47
Safety Altitude
An aircraft can not descend below the
Safety Altitude unless the crew has:
Good visual contact with the ground
or the services of ATC
(Apart from specially equipped aircraft such as
Tornado GR4 which can, when appropriate, use TFR)
Slide 48
Safety Altitude
Using the guidelines, we calculate Safety
Altitude as 3600ft for Leg 1 & 2600ft for Leg 2
As we plan to fly the route at 3000ft AMSL, if
we encountered poor weather during Leg 1,
we would have to climb to 3600ft until
conditions improved
We can now enter Safety Altitude figures
on our Log Card
Slide 49
LEG
1
To
COT MAR
Heading
168M 108M
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
ETA
2
3000 3000
120 120
61.3
0839.2
F Remaining
U
E Required
120
L
Safety Altitude
19.5
0940.5 1000
71
55
3600 2600
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
96
Varn
2W 2W
136
3
4
5
Slide 50
Sortie Co-ordination
Ideally prior to flight, aircraft crews must
notify ATC of their sortie details, so that
action can be initiated if the aircraft becomes
overdue at its planned destination
This notification is usually in the
form of an ATC Flight Plan
Slide 51
ATC Flight Plan
Additionally, the crews of aircraft planned to
enter busy airspace have to submit an ATC
Flight Plan.
This is to enable their flight to be
coordinated with other aircraft using that
airspace
Slide 52
ATC Flight Plan
ATC has a standard format for this, including:
Aircraft type
Aircraft callsign
Time & place of departure
Speed & altitude
Route
ETA and destination
Safety info
In the UK, we submit an ATC Flight Plan using a
CA48 or RAF Form 2919
Slide 53
Here is an
example
Slide 54
Flight Planning
The principles of flight planning are the same
for an intercontinental flight in an airliner, or a
cross-country flight in a light aircraft
Slide 55
Conclusion
Prior to a flight we must:
• Measure Tracks, Distances and Safety Altitude from
the chart or current databases
• Calculate the effects of the weather (especially wind)
• Have sufficient fuel
• Inform ATC of our planned route
This will minimise risk and ensure that if anything
goes wrong, assistance should be readily available
Slide 56
Position Fixing
?
Slide 57
Introduction
In the pioneering days of aviation, aircraft would not
usually fly unless the crew could see the ground, as
map reading was the only means of navigation
Later, aircraft were fitted with sextants & radio directionfinding equipment. However, significant improvements
to navigation capability occurred during & after WW2…
with H2S radar and radio aids such as Gee
Slide 58
Introduction
It was not until the 1970’s that a navigational aid
with world-wide coverage was available (apart
from Astro Navigation)
Omega
Slide 59
Introduction
More recently Satellite Navigation (SatNav) &
the Global Positioning System (GPS) have
replaced previous world-wide systems
Slide 60
Introduction
Any process of finding an aircraft’s
position is known as
Fixing
During a sortie, aircrew need to be able to
fix their position, not only to monitor
progress against fuel reserves, but also to
stay away from areas best avoided
Slide 61
Visual Fixing
There are many factors affecting map reading
When we are able to determine our position
with reference to ground features observed
from the aircraft, this visual fix is known as a
Pinpoint
Slide 62
Visual Fixing
The accuracy of our Pinpoint depends on
the uniqueness of the features, distance
from these features, accuracy of the map
& skill of the observer
Mapreading is a reliable method of navigation
& it is used frequently by aircrew
Slide 63
Radio Aids
The use of radio aids for navigation
enabled aircraft position to be fixed
without reference to ground features
If you rotate a radio aerial through 360º in the
horizontal plane, you will find 2 directions
where radio reception is better than others
Slide 64
Radio Aids
Radio Direction Finding (RDF) uses this
principle. By turning the aerial until the best
reception is received, aircraft equipment will
display the bearing to a transmitting beacon.
As long as the position of the beacon is known,
a Position Line can be drawn from this,
towards the estimated aircraft position, the
aircraft being somewhere along this line
Slide 65
Radio Aids
If another position line can be obtained,
preferably at 90º to the first, fixing is possible
If 3 position lines can be plotted, from different
sources, preferably at 60º to one another, then
a ‘3 position line fix’ can be obtained
If the 3 lines do not intersect, an indication of
reliability may be possible, unlike with just 2 lines
Slide 66
Radio Aids – 3 Position Line Fix
Slide 67
Radio Aids
Traditionally, using 3 position lines was a main
method of fixing. However, the further the
beacons, the greater the errors
Also, at long distance from beacons such as
during trans-oceanic flights, fixing
opportunities were often lacking
Furthermore, constructing fixes from position
lines was very time consuming, requiring a crew
member to act as Navigator
Slide 68
VOR/DME & TACAN
VOR/DME & TACAN beacons are the modern method of
gathering position lines, or indeed an instant fix
Navigation information is
usually displayed on the
Horizontal Situation Indicator
This aircraft is on radial 191,
84.5nm from the beacon
Rather than plotting, modern equipment allows
radial/range data to directly update aircraft systems
Slide 69
TACAN
TACAN is a military system, & gives the
magnetic bearing, or radial, from the
beacon to the aircraft and the slant range
Slant range is the increased distance
indicated due to the relative altitude of
the aircraft above the beacon
Altitude
Ground Range
Slide 70
TACAN
Bearing - 280º
Slant - 35 nm
Similarly, at Yeovil/Westland, a
DME provides range only on
TACAN Channel 27 or DME
frequency 109.5
Yeovilton TACAN
Channel 47
Transmits Morse
code VLN
Aircraft with DME
can obtain range
only, on
frequency 111.0
Slide 71
VOR/DME
VOR/DME is a civilian system
VOR/DME gives the magnetic bearing, or
radial, from the beacon to the aircraft, plus the
slant range. However, the bearing information is
less accurate than TACAN
Civil aircraft generally fly from beacon to beacon
Slide 72
VOR/DME
Lambourne VOR/DME, frequency
115.6, Transmits Morse code LAM
Military aircraft with TACAN can
obtain range only on Channel 103
Both VOR & TACAN bearings are
generated by the ground station, but
ranges for both require aircraft
transmissions
In hostilities, TACAN and
VOR/DME beacons may not be
available
Slide 73
Astro Navigation
If radio beacons are lacking, such as
during sorties across oceans, aircrew can
also use the stars, or Astro Navigation
The principle behind Astro is that if you have
a reasonable estimate of your position, you
can calculate the elevation of heavenly
bodies such as the sun, the moon, the
planets & the stars
Slide 74
Astro Navigation
Then, using a sextant to accurately measure the
elevation of the heavenly body above the horizon,
you can compare your actual position to the
estimated one
The difference between the 2 equates to a
linear position error
2 or 3 position lines are still required for a fix, although
an Astro line can be combined with lines from radio aids
Slide 75
Astro Navigation
With practice, Astro can be accurate, but it is
being superseded by GPS
Astro is weather dependent; however, it
cannot be jammed by an enemy!
Slide 76
Radar Navigation
Slide 77
Radar Navigation
Radar was invented in the 1930’s &
rapidly developed
Early systems where
crude & unreliable
Slide 78
Radar Navigation
Modern systems , such as used in
Tornado, are highly effective
The radar is used to illuminate known ground
features and rapidly update any error
between estimated and actual position
Aircrew can then concentrate on other tasks,
such as weapon-system management
Slide 79
Radar Navigation
The main problem is that the radar transmits
electronic emissions which are usually unique
for the type of radar
This can lead not
only to aircraft
detection, but also
type identification
However, not only is aircraft radar
independent of external aids, but
also it works in all weather
Slide 80
Long-Range Navigation
With the rapid development of electronics in
the 1950’s & 60’s, area navigation systems
were also introduced :
GEE
DECCA
LORAN
OMEGA
These systems involved signals transmitted
from ground stations and not from the aircraft
using them
Slide 81
Long-Range Navigation
These systems work by measuring the
time taken for synchronized signals to
arrive from 2 different stations.
Each pair gives a position line
Slide 82
Long-Range Navigation - Gee
Introduced in the 1940s, the
Gee system allowed aircrew
to fix their position accurately
Plotting the intersection of
2 range position lines,
provided an aircraft
Latitude and Longitude
However, coverage was
limited & using the system
was time consuming
Slide 83
Long-Range Navigation
Later systems such as Decca & Loran worked
on similar principles to Gee
However, as technology progressed,
systems became more automated & had
greater coverage
The ultimate system, Omega, had virtually
worldwide coverage, while being linked directly
to aircraft navigation systems, thereby reducing
aircrew workload
Slide 84
Long-Range Navigation
With the advent of SatNav & in particular GPS, fixes
are available at the touch of a button, throughout the
world, in 3 dimensions & with an accuracy of a few
metres
Slide 85
GPS
Slide 86
GPS measures time
difference between signals
received from satellites of
known position & an
accurate master clock
The time difference
received from each
satellite is then converted
GPS to a range
Ranges from 3
Ranges from 4 or more
satellites will produce a satellites produces a 3fix in the horizontal
dimensional fix. This is
plane
required for weapon solutions
in military aircraft
Slide 87
Active/Passive Systems
As stated, the main disadvantage of radar is that it could
alert an enemy to the presence of the aircraft, thereby
invoking the timely activation of enemy forces or
electronic countermeasures such as jamming
Radar homing missiles have been developed
against surface radars. In the future these could
also be developed against radar-equipped aircraft
Slide 88
Active/Passive Systems
Developments in Electronic Warfare (EW), such as
frequency-hopping radars which minimise the effect
of jamming, can protect active navigation systems in
a hostile environment
However, the problem of aircraft detection still exists
A solution is to use equipment that does not
transmit, but merely receive
Passive Systems
Slide 89
Active/Passive Systems
Passive Systems include GPS-blended
navigation solutions, with fixing taking place
continuously, to keep the navigation and weapon
systems constantly updated
Aircraft may also still retain active
systems, not only for their role, but also
for flexibility in poor weather &
equipment redundancy
Slide 90
Fixing - Summary
Technological developments have enabled aircrew to fix
their position in a variety of ways beyond Pinpoints
Position-line fixing using radio aids and Astro has been
superseded by instant fixing using TACAN or VOR/DME
Long-range systems have gradually developed until
accurate fixing is available instantly & world wide
Radar permits rapid, independent fixing, but use of such
an active system may forewarn a potential enemy
Passive systems offer advantages but aircraft may retain
active sensors for flexibility
Slide 91
PILOT NAVIGATION
END OF LEARNING OUTCOME 2
PILOT NAVIGATION
Senior/Master Air Cadet
Slide 2
Learning Outcomes
Know the basic features of air navigation and
navigational aids
Understand the techniques of flight planning
Understand the affects of weather on aviation
Slide 3
Flight Planning
Slide 4
Introduction
In Air Navigation, we discussed the
Triangle of Velocities
We shall now revise the components
of the Triangle and learn how this
helps us to plan a flight.
Finally, we will learn how to co-ordinate
our sortie with other agencies
Slide 5
Triangle of Velocities
Comprises 3 vectors drawn to scale
One side shows movement of the aircraft
(a vector being a component of the
in still air (HDG & TAS)
Triangle, having both direction & speed)
Another shows wind speed & direction (W/V)
The third shows actual movement of the
aircraft over the surface of the earth (TK &
G/S), resulting from the other 2 vectors
Slide 6
Triangle of Velocities
Thus there are 6 components
Wind Speed
Aircraft Heading
Track
Wind Direction
True Airspeed
Groundspeed
Slide 7
Solution of the Triangle
As long as we have 4 of the components
it can be solved by a number of methods:
Scale drawing on graph paper or map/chart
Dalton dead-reckoning Computer
Mental arithmetic
Micro computers
Slide 8
Flight Planning
Both in private aviation & military training,
flight planning is carried out using a
Pilot Nav Log Card
On this card the flight is divided
into a number of legs
Slide 9
LEG
1
2
3
4
5
To
H eading
H eight
FL
IA S
M ach
T im e
ETA
F
U
E
L
R em ainin g
R equired
S afety A ltitude
TAS
T rack
D istance
W /V
T em p
G /S
V arn
Pilot Nav
Log Card
Slide 10
Flight Planning
Before flight, the Triangle Of Velocities
is solved for each leg
However, to do this, more information is
required
Slide 11
Flight Planning
First, the pilot needs to know the Tracks
and Distances of the various legs
So he draws them on a route chart
We will now plan a VFR Tutor flight from
Leeming to Marham via Cottesmore at
3000ft AMSL
Slide 12
Leeming
Cottesmore
COT
Marham MAR
Slide 13
Flight Planning
For the purposes of our exercise, we have
ignored any airspace issues or any
airspace changes since this version of the
chart was produced
Slide 14
The forecast wind is 180/30 for the first leg
Producing a headwind (G/S < TAS) and some port drift
180/30
The forecast wind is 220/25 for Leg 2
Producing a crosswind with port drift, plus a
tailwind
220/25
Slide 15
Flight Planning - Log Entries
The Pilot must enter some Log Card details
before solving the Triangle of Velocities:
Track
Measured With A Protractor
Distance
Measured from map/chart against the Latitude
scale or using a Nav ruler of same scale
Slide 16
LEG
1
2
To
COT MAR
Heading
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
ETA
F Remaining
U
E Required
L
Safety Altitude
TAS
Track
161
096
98
44
Distance
W/V
Temp
G/S
Varn
3
4
5
Slide 17
Flight Planning - Log Entries
Altitude or Height for each leg
Decided by operational, weather, safety & other needs
Forecast W/V
Forecast Air Temperature (Temp)
Indicated Air Speed (IAS)
Normally The Recommending Cruising Speed
Slide 18
Flight Planning - Log Entries
True Airspeed (TAS)
Calculated from the IAS/RAS & Air
Temperature using a Dalton Computer
Variation (Varn)
Found on the map/chart
Slide 19
Flight Planning – Obtaining TAS
To obtain TAS using the Dalton Computer
Set forecast temp
+10C against 3000ft
From a 120kt
IAS/RAS on the
inner scale
We can obtain 125kt
TAS on the outer
Slide 20
LEG
1
To
2
COT MAR
Heading
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
3000 3000
120 120
Time
ETA
F Remaining
U
E Required
L
Safety Altitude
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
Varn
2W 2W
3
4
5
Slide 21
Solving the Triangle of Velocities
First we will use graph paper
Later we will use the
Dalton Computer
The theory is the same but, as you will
see, the Dalton Computer is quicker
Slide 22
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Once Track, Distance & TAS are
known for each leg, the Triangle of
Velocities can be used to calculate:
The Heading to counter the
wind & fly the desired Track
The Groundspeed (G/S)
Slide 23
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
We already have 4 of the 6
elements of the triangle (1st leg)
Wind Direction
180ºT
Wind Speed
30 Kt
Track
161ºT
TAS
125 Kt
Slide 24
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
We first draw the W/V from the direction
180º & give it a length of 3 units
(to represent 30 Kt)
W/V
NORTH (TRUE)
Slide 25
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Next, at the downwind end of the W/V
draw the Track & G/S line on the
reciprocal of 161ºT, for an unknown length
This length
denoting G/S is
one element we will
discover
Slide 26
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
All we currently know is that G/S will be less
than our TAS of 125 Kt
Slide 27
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Next, from the upwind end of the W/V line,
draw an arc representing TAS to a length of
12.5 graph units (125 knots), until it crosses
the Track & G/S line
Then, with a protractor, measure the
direction of the resultant Heading line &
the length of the G/S line
Slide 28
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Heading/TAS (12.5 units)
Drift
(Heading direction to be
measured)
Track 161T & G/S (to be measured)
W/V
3 units
Slide 29
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
We calculate that the length of the
Track & G/S line is 9.6 units, so the
G/S Will Be 96 Kt
Slide 30
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Using a protractor, the Heading is 166ºT
We can now apply the Varn of 2ºW to
166º(T) to give a Heading of 168º(M)
(True to Compass add West)
After entering this information on the Log Card,
we can then calculate the Leg 1 time by using
a G/S of 96knots & distance of 98nm
Slide 31
Leg Time Calculation - Dalton Computer
To calculate leg time – for Leg 1 put the black
triangle under the 96 Kt G/S on outer scale
Then against the 98 nm distance on the outer scale
Extract a leg time of 61.3 mins on the inner scale
Repeat the exercise for Leg 2, to Marham
Slide 32
LEG
1
To
2
3
4
5
COT MAR
Heading
168M 108M
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
3000 3000
120 120
61.3
19.5
ETA
F Remaining
U
E Required
L
Safety Altitude
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
96
Varn
2W 2W
136
Notice that the info
we will need readily
at each turning
point, is at the top.
Info that can be
referred to in
slower time, is
further down the
card
Slide 33
Triangle of Velocities – Dalton Computer
For Leg 1, put on the
W/V 180/30
First, turn the dial until
180 or S is at the top
Then, put a mark 30kts
below the centre circle
Slide 34
Triangle of Velocities – Dalton Computer
Next, turn the dial until
Track 161 is at the top
Then, ensuring that the
centre circle is over the
TAS 125kts
Observe that there will be
5 degrees port drift
In order to fly the desired
Track of 161, we will have
to offset for the drift
Slide 35
Triangle of Velocities – Dalton Computer
We offset for the drift by
turning the dial the opposite
way - in this case 5
degrees right of Track 161
This gives us a Heading of
166(T), still with 5 degrees
port drift
It also gives us 96Kts G/S
Slide 36
Flight Planning – Triangle of Velocities
Repeat the process for Leg 2
(remembering to change the wind)
You can see that by using the
Dalton Computer, we can solve
the Triangle of Velocities more
rapidly and conveniently than by
scale drawing
Slide 37
Flight Planning - ETA
If we wished to arrive overhead Marham
at a particular time, say 1000hrs, we can
now calculate a departure time from
overhead Leeming, in addition to a time
overhead Cottesmore
Flight time is 61.3 mins to Cottesmore
and 80.8 mins total to Marham
Therefore we can annotate our Log Card
with the desired times (ETA COT 0940.5,
ETA MAR 1000.0 & ETD LEE 0839.2
Slide 38
LEG
1
To
COT MAR
Heading
168M 108M
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
ETA
2
3000 3000
120 120
61.3
0839.2
19.5
0940.5 1000
F Remaining
U
E Required
L
Safety Altitude
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
96
Varn
2W 2W
136
3
4
5
Slide 39
Fuel Planning
Slide 40
Fuel Planning
One of the main purposes of calculating
flight times is to ensure sufficient fuel is
available
Running a car out of fuel will be inconvenient
In an aircraft…… it could be fatal
Slide 41
Fuel Planning
At the planned altitude and speed, the Tutor
consumes fuel at: 48 Kg an hour
48/60 X 61.3 mins = 49.0 Kg
So 49 Kg is needed for Leg 1
Similarly, for Leg 2, 16Kg is required
Total fuel required is therefore 49+16 = 65Kg,
although in reality, additional fuel would be
needed for Take-off, Recovery & Diversion
Slide 42
Fuel Planning
If we require 55 Kg minimum overhead
Marham for recovery and diversion purposes,
we can annotate our Log Card for fuel
Slide 43
LEG
1
To
COT MAR
Heading
168M 108M
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
ETA
2
3000 3000
120 120
61.3
0839.2
F Remaining
U
E Required
120
L
Safety Altitude
19.5
0940.5 1000
71
55
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
96
Varn
2W 2W
136
3
4
5
Slide 44
Other Information
The most important is the Safety Altitude
This is the altitude an aircraft must climb to
or not fly below in
Instrument Meteorological Conditions
(IMC)
Slide 45
Safety Altitude
This ensures the aircraft does not hit the
ground or obstacles such as TV masts
Slide 46
Safety Altitude
Safety Altitude is calculated by adding
1000ft to the highest elevation on or close
to the planned route (RAF use 30nm)
& rounding it up to the next 100ft
In mountainous regions, a greater safety
margin is added
Slide 47
Safety Altitude
An aircraft can not descend below the
Safety Altitude unless the crew has:
Good visual contact with the ground
or the services of ATC
(Apart from specially equipped aircraft such as
Tornado GR4 which can, when appropriate, use TFR)
Slide 48
Safety Altitude
Using the guidelines, we calculate Safety
Altitude as 3600ft for Leg 1 & 2600ft for Leg 2
As we plan to fly the route at 3000ft AMSL, if
we encountered poor weather during Leg 1,
we would have to climb to 3600ft until
conditions improved
We can now enter Safety Altitude figures
on our Log Card
Slide 49
LEG
1
To
COT MAR
Heading
168M 108M
Height
FL
IAS
Mach
Time
ETA
2
3000 3000
120 120
61.3
0839.2
F Remaining
U
E Required
120
L
Safety Altitude
19.5
0940.5 1000
71
55
3600 2600
TAS
125 125
Track
161
096
Distance
98
44
W/V
180/30 220/25
Temp
+10 +10
G/S
96
Varn
2W 2W
136
3
4
5
Slide 50
Sortie Co-ordination
Ideally prior to flight, aircraft crews must
notify ATC of their sortie details, so that
action can be initiated if the aircraft becomes
overdue at its planned destination
This notification is usually in the
form of an ATC Flight Plan
Slide 51
ATC Flight Plan
Additionally, the crews of aircraft planned to
enter busy airspace have to submit an ATC
Flight Plan.
This is to enable their flight to be
coordinated with other aircraft using that
airspace
Slide 52
ATC Flight Plan
ATC has a standard format for this, including:
Aircraft type
Aircraft callsign
Time & place of departure
Speed & altitude
Route
ETA and destination
Safety info
In the UK, we submit an ATC Flight Plan using a
CA48 or RAF Form 2919
Slide 53
Here is an
example
Slide 54
Flight Planning
The principles of flight planning are the same
for an intercontinental flight in an airliner, or a
cross-country flight in a light aircraft
Slide 55
Conclusion
Prior to a flight we must:
• Measure Tracks, Distances and Safety Altitude from
the chart or current databases
• Calculate the effects of the weather (especially wind)
• Have sufficient fuel
• Inform ATC of our planned route
This will minimise risk and ensure that if anything
goes wrong, assistance should be readily available
Slide 56
Position Fixing
?
Slide 57
Introduction
In the pioneering days of aviation, aircraft would not
usually fly unless the crew could see the ground, as
map reading was the only means of navigation
Later, aircraft were fitted with sextants & radio directionfinding equipment. However, significant improvements
to navigation capability occurred during & after WW2…
with H2S radar and radio aids such as Gee
Slide 58
Introduction
It was not until the 1970’s that a navigational aid
with world-wide coverage was available (apart
from Astro Navigation)
Omega
Slide 59
Introduction
More recently Satellite Navigation (SatNav) &
the Global Positioning System (GPS) have
replaced previous world-wide systems
Slide 60
Introduction
Any process of finding an aircraft’s
position is known as
Fixing
During a sortie, aircrew need to be able to
fix their position, not only to monitor
progress against fuel reserves, but also to
stay away from areas best avoided
Slide 61
Visual Fixing
There are many factors affecting map reading
When we are able to determine our position
with reference to ground features observed
from the aircraft, this visual fix is known as a
Pinpoint
Slide 62
Visual Fixing
The accuracy of our Pinpoint depends on
the uniqueness of the features, distance
from these features, accuracy of the map
& skill of the observer
Mapreading is a reliable method of navigation
& it is used frequently by aircrew
Slide 63
Radio Aids
The use of radio aids for navigation
enabled aircraft position to be fixed
without reference to ground features
If you rotate a radio aerial through 360º in the
horizontal plane, you will find 2 directions
where radio reception is better than others
Slide 64
Radio Aids
Radio Direction Finding (RDF) uses this
principle. By turning the aerial until the best
reception is received, aircraft equipment will
display the bearing to a transmitting beacon.
As long as the position of the beacon is known,
a Position Line can be drawn from this,
towards the estimated aircraft position, the
aircraft being somewhere along this line
Slide 65
Radio Aids
If another position line can be obtained,
preferably at 90º to the first, fixing is possible
If 3 position lines can be plotted, from different
sources, preferably at 60º to one another, then
a ‘3 position line fix’ can be obtained
If the 3 lines do not intersect, an indication of
reliability may be possible, unlike with just 2 lines
Slide 66
Radio Aids – 3 Position Line Fix
Slide 67
Radio Aids
Traditionally, using 3 position lines was a main
method of fixing. However, the further the
beacons, the greater the errors
Also, at long distance from beacons such as
during trans-oceanic flights, fixing
opportunities were often lacking
Furthermore, constructing fixes from position
lines was very time consuming, requiring a crew
member to act as Navigator
Slide 68
VOR/DME & TACAN
VOR/DME & TACAN beacons are the modern method of
gathering position lines, or indeed an instant fix
Navigation information is
usually displayed on the
Horizontal Situation Indicator
This aircraft is on radial 191,
84.5nm from the beacon
Rather than plotting, modern equipment allows
radial/range data to directly update aircraft systems
Slide 69
TACAN
TACAN is a military system, & gives the
magnetic bearing, or radial, from the
beacon to the aircraft and the slant range
Slant range is the increased distance
indicated due to the relative altitude of
the aircraft above the beacon
Altitude
Ground Range
Slide 70
TACAN
Bearing - 280º
Slant - 35 nm
Similarly, at Yeovil/Westland, a
DME provides range only on
TACAN Channel 27 or DME
frequency 109.5
Yeovilton TACAN
Channel 47
Transmits Morse
code VLN
Aircraft with DME
can obtain range
only, on
frequency 111.0
Slide 71
VOR/DME
VOR/DME is a civilian system
VOR/DME gives the magnetic bearing, or
radial, from the beacon to the aircraft, plus the
slant range. However, the bearing information is
less accurate than TACAN
Civil aircraft generally fly from beacon to beacon
Slide 72
VOR/DME
Lambourne VOR/DME, frequency
115.6, Transmits Morse code LAM
Military aircraft with TACAN can
obtain range only on Channel 103
Both VOR & TACAN bearings are
generated by the ground station, but
ranges for both require aircraft
transmissions
In hostilities, TACAN and
VOR/DME beacons may not be
available
Slide 73
Astro Navigation
If radio beacons are lacking, such as
during sorties across oceans, aircrew can
also use the stars, or Astro Navigation
The principle behind Astro is that if you have
a reasonable estimate of your position, you
can calculate the elevation of heavenly
bodies such as the sun, the moon, the
planets & the stars
Slide 74
Astro Navigation
Then, using a sextant to accurately measure the
elevation of the heavenly body above the horizon,
you can compare your actual position to the
estimated one
The difference between the 2 equates to a
linear position error
2 or 3 position lines are still required for a fix, although
an Astro line can be combined with lines from radio aids
Slide 75
Astro Navigation
With practice, Astro can be accurate, but it is
being superseded by GPS
Astro is weather dependent; however, it
cannot be jammed by an enemy!
Slide 76
Radar Navigation
Slide 77
Radar Navigation
Radar was invented in the 1930’s &
rapidly developed
Early systems where
crude & unreliable
Slide 78
Radar Navigation
Modern systems , such as used in
Tornado, are highly effective
The radar is used to illuminate known ground
features and rapidly update any error
between estimated and actual position
Aircrew can then concentrate on other tasks,
such as weapon-system management
Slide 79
Radar Navigation
The main problem is that the radar transmits
electronic emissions which are usually unique
for the type of radar
This can lead not
only to aircraft
detection, but also
type identification
However, not only is aircraft radar
independent of external aids, but
also it works in all weather
Slide 80
Long-Range Navigation
With the rapid development of electronics in
the 1950’s & 60’s, area navigation systems
were also introduced :
GEE
DECCA
LORAN
OMEGA
These systems involved signals transmitted
from ground stations and not from the aircraft
using them
Slide 81
Long-Range Navigation
These systems work by measuring the
time taken for synchronized signals to
arrive from 2 different stations.
Each pair gives a position line
Slide 82
Long-Range Navigation - Gee
Introduced in the 1940s, the
Gee system allowed aircrew
to fix their position accurately
Plotting the intersection of
2 range position lines,
provided an aircraft
Latitude and Longitude
However, coverage was
limited & using the system
was time consuming
Slide 83
Long-Range Navigation
Later systems such as Decca & Loran worked
on similar principles to Gee
However, as technology progressed,
systems became more automated & had
greater coverage
The ultimate system, Omega, had virtually
worldwide coverage, while being linked directly
to aircraft navigation systems, thereby reducing
aircrew workload
Slide 84
Long-Range Navigation
With the advent of SatNav & in particular GPS, fixes
are available at the touch of a button, throughout the
world, in 3 dimensions & with an accuracy of a few
metres
Slide 85
GPS
Slide 86
GPS measures time
difference between signals
received from satellites of
known position & an
accurate master clock
The time difference
received from each
satellite is then converted
GPS to a range
Ranges from 3
Ranges from 4 or more
satellites will produce a satellites produces a 3fix in the horizontal
dimensional fix. This is
plane
required for weapon solutions
in military aircraft
Slide 87
Active/Passive Systems
As stated, the main disadvantage of radar is that it could
alert an enemy to the presence of the aircraft, thereby
invoking the timely activation of enemy forces or
electronic countermeasures such as jamming
Radar homing missiles have been developed
against surface radars. In the future these could
also be developed against radar-equipped aircraft
Slide 88
Active/Passive Systems
Developments in Electronic Warfare (EW), such as
frequency-hopping radars which minimise the effect
of jamming, can protect active navigation systems in
a hostile environment
However, the problem of aircraft detection still exists
A solution is to use equipment that does not
transmit, but merely receive
Passive Systems
Slide 89
Active/Passive Systems
Passive Systems include GPS-blended
navigation solutions, with fixing taking place
continuously, to keep the navigation and weapon
systems constantly updated
Aircraft may also still retain active
systems, not only for their role, but also
for flexibility in poor weather &
equipment redundancy
Slide 90
Fixing - Summary
Technological developments have enabled aircrew to fix
their position in a variety of ways beyond Pinpoints
Position-line fixing using radio aids and Astro has been
superseded by instant fixing using TACAN or VOR/DME
Long-range systems have gradually developed until
accurate fixing is available instantly & world wide
Radar permits rapid, independent fixing, but use of such
an active system may forewarn a potential enemy
Passive systems offer advantages but aircraft may retain
active sensors for flexibility
Slide 91
PILOT NAVIGATION
END OF LEARNING OUTCOME 2