Transcript An Overview of Major Research Approaches

Professor Sanjoy Bandopadhya
Ustad Alauddin Khan Professor of Instrumental Music
Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata
 Premises
in Logic
 Deductive Logic
 Inductive Logic
 Empirical Research
 In
logic, an argument is a set of one or
more declarative sentences (or
"propositions") known as the premises
along with another declarative sentence
(or "proposition") known as the
conclusion. Example:
• MA program is taught in universities. [Premise]
• M.A. program is taught at Rabindra Bharati [Premise]
• Rabindra Bharati is a university [Conclusion]


Deductive reasoning, also called deductive logic,
is reasoning which constructs or evaluates
deductive arguments.
Deductive arguments are attempts to show that a
conclusion necessarily follows from a set of premises
or hypotheses. A deductive argument is valid if the
conclusion does follow necessarily from the
premises, i.e., if the conclusion must be true
provided that the premises are true. A deductive
argument is sound if it is valid and its premises are
true. Deductive arguments are valid or invalid, sound
or unsound, but are never false nor true.

Deductive reasoning is a method of gaining
knowledge. An example of a deductive
argument:
• 1. All men are mortal
• 2. Socrates is a man
• 3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal

The first premise states that all objects classified
as "men" have the attribute "mortal". The second
premise states that "Socrates" is classified as a
man – a member of the set "men". The conclusion
states that "Socrates" must be mortal because he
inherits this attribute from his classification as a
man.
Law of detachment

The law of detachment is the first form of deductive reasoning. A single conditional
statement is made, and then a hypothesis (P) is stated. The conclusion (Q) is deduced
from the hypothesis and the statement. The most basic form is listed below:
•
•
•


We can conclude Q from P by using the law of detachment from deductive reasoning.[1]
However, if the conclusion (Q) is given instead of the hypothesis (P) then there is no valid
conclusion.
The following is an example of an argument using the law of detachment in the form of
an If-then statement:
•
•
•

1. P→Q
2. P (Hypothesis stated)
3. Q (Conclusion given)
1. If m∠A>90°, then A is an obtuse angle.
2. m∠A=120°.
3. ∠A is an obtuse angle.
Since the measurement of angle A is greater than 90° degrees, we can deduce by that
statement alone that A is an obtuse angle.
Law of syllogism
 The law of syllogism takes two conditional
statements and forms a conclusion by combining the
hypothesis of one statement with the conclusion of
another. The following is an example:
• 1. If Rupa is sick, then she will be absent from school.
• 2. If Rupa is absent, then she will miss her class-work.
• 3. If Rupa is sick, then she will miss her class-work.

We deduced the solution by combining the
hypothesis of the first problem with the conclusion of
the second statement.
 Deductive
arguments are generally
evaluated in terms of their validity and
soundness.
 An argument is valid if it is impossible for its
premises to be true while its conclusion is
false. In other words, the conclusion must be
true if the premises, whatever they may be,
are true. An argument can be valid even
though the premises are false.
 An argument is sound if it is valid and the
premises are true.



Empirical research is a way of gaining knowledge by
means of direct observation or experience.
Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations
or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or
qualitatively. Through quantifying the evidence or making
sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer
empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and
answerable with the evidence collected (usually called
data).
Many researchers combine qualitative and quantitative
forms of analysis to better answer questions which cannot
be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the social
sciences and in education.
Quantitative research refers to the systematic
empirical investigation of social phenomena via
statistical, mathematical or computational
techniques.
 The objective of quantitative research is to
develop and employ mathematical models,
theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to
phenomena. The process of measurement is
central to quantitative research because it
provides the fundamental connection between
empirical observation and mathematical
expression of quantitative relationships.

 Qualitative
researchers aim to gather an indepth understanding of human behavior
and the reasons that govern such behavior.
The qualitative method investigates the
why and how of decision making, not just
what, where, when.
 This method is widely adapted in Social
Science, Ethnology, Music and other
disciplines.
 Mix method may be used to solve certain
Research Problems. Mix method will involve
different research methods.
 Qualitative
Research Method [or Mixed
Method] is widely used in music
researches so the follow–up discussion
will focus on the general areas of
Qualitative Research Method.
 Qualitative
researchers may use different
approaches in collecting data.
• interviews and group discussions, observation and
reflection field notes, various texts, pictures, and
other materials.
• This may also include narratology, storytelling, and
so on.
 There
may be many other alternative
methods, some of them will be discussed in
later lectures. An example may ‘Ground
Theory’ that is a different approach.


Ethnographic Research, used for investigating
cultures by collecting and describing data that is
intended to help in the development of a theory.
This method is also called “ethno-methodology”
or "methodology of the people".
An example of applied ethnographic research, is
the study of a particular culture and their
understanding of the role of a particular disease
in their cultural framework.
 Historical
Research, allows one to discuss
past and present events in the context of
the present condition, and allows one to
reflect and provide possible answers to
current issues and problems.
 Historical research helps us in answering
questions such as: Where have we come
from, where are we, who are we now and
where are we going?
 Grounded
Theory, is an inductive type of
research, based or “grounded” in the
observations or data from which it was
developed; it uses a variety of data
sources, including quantitative data,
review of records, interviews,
observation and surveys.
Phenomenology, describes
the
“subjective reality” of an event,
as perceived by the study
population; it is the study of a
phenomenon.
 Interpretive
techniques
• The most common analysis of qualitative data is
observer impression. That is, expert or
bystander observers examine the data, interpret
it via forming an impression and report their
impression in a structured and sometimes
quantitative form.

Coding is an interpretive technique that both organizes the
data and provides a means to introduce the interpretations
of it into certain quantitative methods. Most coding requires
the analyst to read the data and demarcate segments within
it. Each segment is labeled with a “code” – usually a word or
short phrase that suggests how the associated data
segments inform the research objectives. When coding is
complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix of:
• summarizing the prevalence of codes,
• discussing similarities and differences in related codes across distinct
original sources/contexts, or
• comparing the relationship between one or more codes.
Contemporary qualitative data analyses are
sometimes supported by computer programs,
termed Computer Assisted Qualitative Data
Analysis Software. These programs do not
supplant the interpretive nature of coding but
rather are aimed at enhancing the analyst’s
efficiency at data storage/retrieval and at
applying the codes to the data.
 Many programs offer efficiencies in editing and
revising coding, which allow for work sharing,
peer review, and recursive examination of data.

 Some
qualitative datasets are analyzed
without coding. A common method here
is recursive abstraction, where datasets
are summarized, those summaries are
then further summarized, and so on. The
end result is a more compact summary
that would have been difficult to
accurately discern without the preceding
steps of distillation.
 Some
techniques rely on leveraging
computers to scan and sort large sets of
qualitative data. At their most basic level,
mechanical techniques rely on counting
words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens
within the data. Often referred to as
content analysis, the output from these
techniques is amenable to many
advanced statistical analyses.
A
central issue in qualitative research is validity
(also known as credibility and/or
dependability). There are many different ways
of establishing validity, like auditability,
confirmability, etc.
[details will be taken up at a later time]