Transcript pps

Slide 5.1
Culture, power, politics and choice
(Chapter 5)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.2
Organisational culture
Importance
 We do not work in a vacuum. The way we work and
behave is shaped, directed and tempered by the
culture of the organisation to which we belong.
 Organisations are miniature societies.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.3
The Current fascination with culture
Arose in the 1980s from the work of:
 Peters and Waterman (1982)
 Allen and Kraft (1982)
 Deal and Kennedy (1982)
However,
Blake and Mouton (1969) had linked culture and
performance in the 1960s.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.4
Why the ‘Culture Craze’
of the 1980s?
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The decline of the West
The rise of Japan.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.5
What is culture?
Culture is ‘how things are done
around here’. It is what is typical of
the organization, the habits, the
prevailing attitudes, the grown-up
pattern of accepted behaviour.
(Drennan, 1992:3)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.6
A few more definitions
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The culture of the factory is its customary and traditional way of
thinking and doing things, which is shared to a greater or lesser
degree by all its members and which new members must learn,
and at least partially accept, in order to be accepted into
service in the firm. (Jacques, 1952: 251)
Culture ... is a pattern of beliefs and expectations shared by the
organization’s members. These beliefs and expectations
produce norms and powerfully shape the behaviour of
individuals and groups in the organization. (Schwartz and
Davis, 1981: 33)
A quality of perceived organizational specialness – that it
possesses some unusual quality that distinguishes it from
others in the field. (Gold, 1982: 571–572)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.7
A few more definitions (Continued)
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By culture I mean the shared beliefs top managers in a
company have about how they should manage
themselves and other employees, and how they should
conduct business(es). (Lorsch, 1986:95)
Culture represents an interdependent set of values and
ways of behaving that are common in a community and
that tend to perpetuate themselves, sometimes over long
periods of time. (Kotterand Hesketh, 1992: 141)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.8
Why is culture important?
Culture shapes behaviour
 Friendly or Aggressive
• Proactive or Passive
• Concerned or Not Bothered
 Teamworker or Solo Player
 Rule Follower or Rule Breaker.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.9
Implications of culture
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Behaviour is not shaped by extrinsic and
intrinsic motivators but by values, beliefs and
assumptions.
Culture guides actions but only when it is
strong and unchallenged.
Some cultures are better than others.
If values, beliefs and attitudes can be learned,
they can also be changed.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.10
Handy’s four types of culture
Person – The individual is the central focus. Found amongst
artists, performers, barristers, architects.
Power – Power radiates out from the centre like a
spider’s web. Found in small entrepreneurial
companies, family dominated companies, etc.
Role –
Found in bureaucracies where the main emphasis
is on compliance with rules and procedures.
Task –
The emphasis is on completing the job or project.
Found in organisations which require teamwork,
flexibility and speed, such as advertising agencies.
Main cultures in the UK = Role and Task
Handy (1986)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.11
Deal and Kennedy’s four types of
culture
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The Tough Guy, Macho culture, characterised by
individualism and risk-taking, e.g. a police force.
The Work-Hard/Play-Hard culture, characterised by
low risks and quick feedback on performance, e.g.
McDonald’s.
The Bet-Your-Company culture, characterised by
high risks and very long feedback time, e.g. aircraft
companies.
The Process culture, characterised by low risks and
slow feedback, e.g. insurance companies.
Deal and Kennedy (1982)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.12
Quinn and McGrath’s four types of
culture
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The Market, characterised by rational decision-making
and goal-orientated employees, e.g. GEC under Arnold
Weinstock.
The Adhocracy, characterised by risk-orientated and
charismatic leaders and value-driven organisations, e.g.
Apple and Microsoft in their early days.
The Clan, characterised by participation, consensus and
concern for others, e.g. voluntary organisations.
The Hierarchy, characterised by hierarchical, rule-based
authority that values stability and risk avoidance, e.g.
government bureaucracies.
Quinn and McGrath (1985)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.13
Organisational Culture
Inventory classifications
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Constructive cultures. Cultures in which members are
encouraged to interact with others and approach tasks in
ways that will help them to meet their higher-order satisfaction
needs (includes Achievement, Self-Actualization, HumanisticEncouraging and Affiliative cultures).
Passive/Defensive cultures. Cultures in which members
believe that they must interact with people in defensive ways
that will not threaten their own security (includes Approval,
Conventional, Dependent and Avoidance cultures).
Aggressive/Defensive cultures. Cultures in which members
are expected to approach tasks in forceful ways to protect
their status and security (includes Oppositional, Power,
Competitive and Perfectionist cultures).
(Jones et al, 2006: 18)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.14
Hofstede’s national clusters
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Scandinavia (primarily Denmark, Sweden and Norway):
these cultures are based upon values of collectivity,
consensus and decentralisation.
West Germany (prior to unification), Switzerland and
Austria: these are grouped together largely as valuing
efficiency – the well-oiled machine – and seeking to
reduce uncertainty.
Great Britain, Canada, the USA, New Zealand, Australia
and the Netherlands: these lie somewhere between 1
and 2 but cluster on the value they place on strong
individuals and achievers in society.
Japan, France, Belgium, Spain and Italy: these are
clustered on bureaucratic tendencies – the pyramid
structure – favouring a large power distance.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.15
Dobson’s guide to changing culture
Step 1 Change recruitment, selection and redundancy policies to alter the
composition of the workforce so that promotion and employment
prospects are dependent on those concerned possessing or displaying
the beliefs and values the organisation wishes to promote.
Step 2 Reorganise the workforce to ensure that those employees and
managers displaying the required traits occupy positions of influence.
Step 3 Effectively communicate the new values. This is done using a
variety of methods such as one-to-one interviews, briefing groups,
quality circles, house journals, etc. However, the example of senior
managers exhibiting the new beliefs and values is seen as particularly
important.
Step 4 Change systems, procedures and personnel policies, especially
those concerned with rewards and appraisal.
Dobson (1988)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.16
Guidelines for changing culture
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Formulate a clear strategic vision.
Display top-management commitment.
Model culture change at the highest level.
Modify the organisation to support
organisational changes.
Select and socialise newcomers and terminate
deviants.
Develop ethical and legal sensitivity.
(Cummings and Worley, 2001: 509 – 511)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.17
Wilson’s culture perspectives
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The integration perspective: This portrays a strong or desirable
culture as one where there is organisation-wide consensus and
consistency.
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The differentiation perspective: This emphasises that rather than
consensus being organisation-wide, it only occurs within the boundaries
of a subculture. At the organisational level, differentiated subcultures
may co-exist in harmony, conflict or indifference to each other.
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The fragmentation perspective: This approach views ambiguity as the
norm, with consensus and dissension co-existing in a constantly
fluctuating pattern influenced by events and specific areas of decisionmaking (e.g. Frost et al, 1991). Rather than the clear unity of the
integration perspective, or the clear conflicts of the differentiation
viewpoint, fragmentation focuses on that which is unclear.
(Wilson, 2001: 357)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.18
Figure 5.1
The major elements of culture
Source: From CUMMINGS/WORLEY. Powerpoint® (IRCD only) for Cummings/Worley’s Organization Development and Change, 9th, 9E. © 2009 South Western, a part of Cengage
Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www. cengage.com/permissions
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.19
Figure 5.2
A structure–culture continuum
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.20
Figure 5.3
A structure–culture–environment continuum
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.21
Figure 5.4
A structure–culture mismatch
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.22
What is politics?
[Politics is the] ... efforts of organizational members to
mobilize support for or against policies, rules, goals, or
other decisions in which the outcome will have some
effect on them. Politics, therefore, is essentially the
exercise of power.
(Robbins, 1987 : 194)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.23
Three perspectives on culture
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Optimists – culture can be changed, e.g. Peters
and Waterman (1982).
Pessimist – culture cannot be changed, e.g.
Hatch (1997)
Realists – parts of culture can be changed, e.g.
Meek 1988).
Ogbonna and Harris (2002)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.24
Warning
Culture as a whole cannot be manipulated, turned on or off,
although it needs to be recognised that some
[organisations] are in a better position than others to
intentionally influence aspects of it.... culture should be
regarded as something an organisation ‘is’, not
something it ‘has’: it is not an independent variable nor
can it be created, discovered or destroyed by the whims
of management.
(Meek, 1988:469–470)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.25
Criticisms
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Strong cultures can make organisations resistant to
certain types of change.
Strong cultures may only suit organisations at
certain stages in their development.
Can bring short-term benefits but may also bring
long-term stagnation and decline.
Organisations also have sub-cultures.
Timescale for changing culture: 6 to 15 years.
Ethics: should we seek to control or manipulate
people’s emotions?
Culture cannot be controlled.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.26
Culture
Conclusions
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There is no clear agreement about the nature or the
malleability of culture.
Managers must make choices based on their own
circumstances and perceived options.
Without strong or appropriate cultures, managers
may find it difficult to agree among themselves or
gain compliance from others. In such situations,
there is a tendency for conflict and power battles to
occur.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.27
Power and politics
It is difficult to think of situations in which goals are so
congruent, or the facts so clear-cut that judgment and
compromise are not involved. What is rational from
one point of view is irrational from another
Organizations are political systems, coalitions of
interests, and rationality is defined only with respect to
unitary and consistent ordering of preferences.
(Pfeffer, 1978 : 11–12)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.28
What is power?
... we defined authority as the right to act, or command
others to act, toward the attainment of organizational
goals. Its unique characteristic, we said, was that this
right had legitimacy based on the authority figure’s
position in the organization. Authority goes with the
job.... When we use the term power we mean an
individual’s capacity to influence decisions.. .the ability
to influence based on an individual’s legitimate
position can affect decisions, but one does not require
authority to have such influence.
(Robbins, 1987 : 186)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.29
Some definitions
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Authority:
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Power:
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The right to act.
The capacity to influence decisions.
Politics:
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The exercise of power.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.30
Definitions (Continued)
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Politics:
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Legitimate use of politics:
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The exercise of power.
The exercise of power by those entitled to in the
interests of the organisation.
Illegitimate use of politics:
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The exercise of power in pursuit of personal interests
or by those not entitled to.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.31
The political view of organisations
… a political view can explain much of, what
may seem to be, irrational behaviour in
organizations. It can help to explain, for
instance, why employees withhold information,
restrict output, attempt to ‘build empires’ ...
(Robbins, 1986: 283)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.32
The conditions for political behaviour
…virtually all [writers] agree that for politics to occur,
certain conditions must exist. There must be two or
more parties (individuals, groups or large entities),
some form of interdependence between the parties,
and a perception on the part of at least one of the
parties that divergent interests exist between them
such that there is, or may potentially arise, conflict
between the parties. Once these conditions exist, the
subsequent actions of the parties involved will be
deemed ‘political.’
(Bradshaw-Camball and Murray, 1991: 380)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.33
Political ploys
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•
Reason – facts and information are used selectively to mount
seemingly logical or rational arguments.
Friendliness – the use of flattery, creation of goodwill, etc., prior to
making a request.
Coalition – joining forces with others so as to increase one’s own
influence.
Bargaining – exchanging benefits and favours in order to achieve a
particular outcome.
Assertiveness – being forceful in making requests and demanding
compliance.
Higher authority – gaining the support of superiors for a particular
course of action.
Sanctions – using the promise of rewards or the threat of punishment
to force compliance.
Kipnis et al (1980, 1984), Schilit and Locke (1982)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.34
Using power and politics
•
•
•
•
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Decide what your goals are, what you are trying to accomplish.
Diagnose patterns of dependence and interdependence; what
individuals are influential and important in your achieving your goal?
What are their points of view likely to be? How will they feel about
what you are trying to do?
What are their power bases? Which of them is more influential in the
decision?
What are your bases of power and influence? What bases of
influence can you develop to gain more control over the situation?
Which of the various strategies and tactics for exercising power
seem most appropriate and are likely to be effective, given the
situation you confront?
Based on the above, choose a course of action to get something
done.
(Pfeffer, 1992: 29)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.35
The four main types of power
1. Coercive power – the threat of negative consequences
(including physical sanctions or force) should compliance
not be forthcoming.
2. Remunerative power – the promise of material rewards
as inducements to cooperate.
3. Normative power – the allocation and manipulation of
symbolic rewards, such as status symbols, as
inducements to obey.
4. Knowledge power – the control of information.
Etzioni (1975), Robbins (1986)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.36
Favourite influencing strategies
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For influencing up (managers) – the use of
reason.
For influencing across (co-workers) – the use of
friendliness.
For influencing down (subordinates) – the use of
reason.
Huczynski and Buchanan (2001)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.37
Power tactics
• Image building – action that enhances a person’s standing,
such as backing the ‘right’ causes.
• Selective information – withhold unfavourable information
from superiors.
• Scapegoating – blame someone else.
• Formal alliances – form or join a coalition of the strong.
• Networking – make friends with those in power.
• Compromise – be prepared to give in on unimportant issues in
order to win on the important ones.
• Rule manipulation – interpret rules selectively to favour
friends and thwart opponents.
• Other tactics – if all else fails, use dirty tricks such as
coercion, undermining the expertise of others, playing one
group off against another, and get others to ‘fire the bullet’.
(Buchanan and Badham, 1999: 27–29)
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.38
Political behaviour
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Minimised when there is:
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Stability
Agreement about goals
Openness.
Maximised when there is:
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Uncertainty
Conflict over goals
Secrecy.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.39
Organisational change
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Can:
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But it can also:
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Create instability
Challenge culture
Threaten existing power relations
Promote political behaviour.
Restore stability
Recreate or support culture
Maintain existing power relations
Reduce conflict.
It depends on the context.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.40
Supplementary material
from Senior & Fleming
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.41
Organizational politics
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Buchanan and Huczynski (2004, p. 828) Power concerns the
capacity of individuals to exert their will over others. Political
behaviour is the practical domain of power in action, worked
out through the use of techniques of influence and other
tactics.
Robbins (2005, pp. 400-1) For our purposes, we shall define
political behaviour in organizations as those activities that are
not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization,
but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of
advantages and disadvantages within the organization.
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.42
Morgan 1997
Organizations and modes of political rule
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Autocracy
Bureaucracy
Technocracy
Co-determination
Representative democracy
Direct democracy
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.43
Power in organizations
The characteristics of power:
Power influences who gets what, when and how.
Morgan 1997 – p.170
Power is defined as the potential ability to influence behaviour, to change
the course of events, to overcome resistance, and to get people to do things
that they would otherwise not do.
Pfeffer 1993 – pp. 204
–5
Power refers to the capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B, so
that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.
Robbins 2005 – p. 390
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.44
The relationship between power
and influence
Handy 1993
Sources of individual power
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Physical power
Resource power
Position power
Expert power
Personal Power
Negative Power
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.45
The relationship between power
and influence (continued)
Handy 1993
Methods of influence
 Force
 Rules and procedures
 Exchange
 Persuasion
 Ecology
 Magnetism
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.46
Robbin’s (2005) Formal and personal power
Formal
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Coercive power
Reward power
Legitimate power
Information power
Personal
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Expert power
Referent power
Charismatic power
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.47
Position power and the control of resources
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Resource power
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Invisible power
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Non–decision-making power
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Personal power
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Expert or knowledge power
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Symbolic power
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Individual power
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.48
The politics of powerlessness
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Women’s lack of power
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Powerlessness because of cultural differences
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Positions of powerlessness
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.49
The link between politics, power and conflict
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
The unitarist view relating to
Interests
Conflict
Power
The pluralist view relating to
Interests
Conflict
Power
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.50
Conflict in organizations
The nature of conflict
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Interdependence
Organizational structures
Rules and regulations
Limited resources
Cultural differences
Environmental change
Approaches to conflict
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.51
Conflict-handling styles – Thomas 1976
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Competing
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Collaborating
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Compromising
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Avoiding
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Accommodating
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.52
Quotes
Buchanan and Badham (1999, p. 56)
1.
Power is the property of individuals, defined across a number of
identifiable power sources or bases, some structural, some individual, and
exercised in attempts to influence others
2.
Power is a property of relationships between members of an organization,
identified by the extent to which some individuals believe, or do not
believe, that others possess particular power bases
3.
Power is an embedded property of the structures, regulations, relationships
and norms of the organization, perpetuating existing routines and power
inequalities
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009
Slide 5.53
Case Study
Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009