Transcript Academic English IIi

FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITING
April 3, 2014
What is the author trying to argue?
How does he/she support his/her point?
What kind of evidence is used?
Do you think the author presents an effective argument
overall?
Today
Argumentative writing (continued)
- Logical fallacies
- opposing arguments + rebuttals
Argument
One of the keystones of university learning
- Expressing a point of view & supporting it w/evidence
- Involves use of research, critical thinking, & logic
A good piece of argumentative writing:
- Demonstrates your understanding of material
- Demonstrates ability to use or apply the material
i.e.) critique, apply it to something else,
explain it in a different way.
Argument
It is something you do on a daily basis
- Academic
- Non-academic
The more you improve your skill in argument, the better
you are at:
- critical thinking
- reasoning
- making choices
- negotiating
- weighing evidence
Argument – a group of statements
An argument consists of:
- Claim: Drinking water daily is good for your health
(i.e., thesis statement)
- Support : as it cleans out your liver and reduces the level of
toxins in your blood.
(i.e., evidence and reasoning throughout an essay)
Example: Drinking water daily is good for your health as it cleans
out your liver and reduces the level of toxins in your
blood.
Argumentative Writing - Example
Body paragraph 1:
Cake increases study performance. Elementary school students
have increasing pressures to do well in school as expectations of what
they should learn and how much they should learn change. As a result,
elementary school students now study more difficult subjects, such as
math, for longer periods of time. By increasing study performance, cake
can help students cope with these new demands. First, cake has been
proven to increase concentration. A study found that children who eat
just one piece of cake per day have 30% better concentration than
children who have no cake (Wonka, 2011). An increase in
concentration can allow students to cope with increased class
demands, especially in more difficult classes, such as math, which
require concentration to solve complex problems. Cake also has a
positive effect on reaction time. The chemicals in cake improve the function
of the reticular formation, allowing cake eaters to more quickly process
visual and auditory information (Jones, 2009). Increased reaction times
allow students to answer questions faster and to more readily understand
explanations and examples. By providing a much needed increase in
study performance, cake should clearly be included on the daily
menu of elementary school cafeterias.
Reaching Logical Conclusions
Example 1
Premise 1: Non-renewable resources do not exist in infinite
supply.
Premise 2: Coal is a non-renewable resource.
Conclusion: ?
- Coal does not exist in infinite supply.
Logic – What is it?
“A formal system of analysis that helps writers invent,
demonstrate, and prove arguments.” (O.W.L.: Para 2)
In logic:
- Test propositions against each other to determine
accuracy.
Logic is not simply the absence of emotion in an argument,
or “common sense”.
Logic - Syllogism
Most famous type of logical sequence.
- Developed by Aristotle.
Aristotle’s most famous syllogism:
Premise 1: All men are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Premise 2 tested against Premise 1 to reach conclusion.
Since both premises are valid, there is no other logical conclusion.
Logic
In logic:
Argument = The assertion of a conclusion based on
logical premises.
Premise = Proposition used as evidence in an argument.
Conclusion = Logical result of the relationship between
the premises
Reaching Logical Conclusions
Example 2: It can often take several premises to reach a
conclusion.
Premise 1: All monkeys are primates.
Premise 2: All primates are mammals.
Premise 3: All mammals are vertebrate animals.
Conclusion: Monkeys are vertebrate animals.
Using logic in writing
Simply creating a syllogism…
Premise 1
Premise 2
Conclusion
…is not enough to convince all readers.
1. Not all readers will automatically follow your line of
reasoning.
2. The elements of the argument needs to be expanded.
Using logic in writing
To convert a logical syllogism into a written argument:
- Present each premise clearly
- Provide evidence to support each premise
- Draw a clear connection to the conclusion
Using logic in writing – Example
Context:
The government in Moronville wants to use taxpayer
money to construct a new stadium.
The author of the following argument is opposed to this.
Using logic in writing – Example 1
Author’s logic:
Premise 1: Projects funded by taxpayer dollars should
benefit a majority of the public.
Premise 2: The proposed stadium constructions benefits
very few members of the public.
Conclusion: Therefore, the stadium construction should
not be funded by taxpayer dollars.
Using logic in writing – Example 1
Author’s logic:
Premise 1: Projects funded by taxpayer dollars should benefit a majority of the
public.
Premise 2: The proposed stadium constructions benefits very few members of
the public.
Conclusion: Therefore, the stadium construction should not be funded by
taxpayer dollars.
This conclusion is logical. However, if there is no
elaboration, it may not be persuasive to the audience.
Using logic in writing – Example 1
The author elaborates on the premises (explains them
adequately) and provides evidence to support each
premise.
Logical Fallacies
- When creating an argument, be careful with using “faulty
logic”.
- At times, a writer may go off course with his/her logic or
may write an argument that has no logical support.
- In the next few slides, we will examine some common
logical fallacies
Logical Fallacies
Slippery Slope
Problem: based on the premise that if A happens a series
will follow: B, C…X, Y, Z.
Basically saying A = Z.
Topic: banning SUVs.
If we ban SUVs because they are bad for the environment,
eventually the government will ban all cars; therefore, we
should not ban SUVs.
Logical Fallacies
Hasty Generalization
Problem: The conclusion is based on insufficient or biased
evidence.
Basically: Rushing to the conclusion.
Even though this is only the first episode, this TV show is
clearly going to be terrible.
Logical Fallacies
Post hoc ergo propter hoc
(after this, therefore, because of this)
Problem: Conclusions that assumes that if ‘A’ occurred
after ‘B’, then ‘B’ must have caused ‘A’.
Basically: Assuming that if one event follows another, the
first event must have caused the second.
I ate some pizza and got sick. Thus, the pizza must have
made me sick.
Logical Fallacies
Genetic Fallacy
Problem: Conclusion is based on an argument that the
origins of an idea, person, theory, etc. determine its value.
Basically: Drawing a conclusion based on premises that
are not inherently related.
Volkswagen cars are evil because they were used by
Hitler’s army.
Logical Fallacies
Begging the Claim
Problem: The conclusion that needs to be proven is already
validated in the claim.
Filthy and polluting oil should be banned.
Logical Fallacies
Circular Argument
Problem: Instead of proving the argument, the writer restates the argument.
Basically A is B because B.
Barack Obama is a great communicator because he
speaks effectively.
Logical Fallacies
Either/Or
Problem: The conclusion over simplifies the argument by
reducing it to only two sides or choices.
We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.
Logical Fallacies
Ad hominem
Problem: An attack on the character of a person (or
organization, etc.) rather than on opinions or arguments of
that person.
Basically: Because you’re bad, your argument is invalid.
Green Peace’s strategies are not effective because they
are all dirty, lazy idiots.
Logical Fallacies
Red Herring
Problem: A diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues,
often avoiding opposing arguments instead of addressing
them.
The level of mercury in seafood may be dangerous, but
what will fishermen do to support their families if we cut
down on fishing?
Logical Fallacies
Moral Equivalence
Problem: Comparing a minor misdeed with a major atrocity.
The parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as bad as
Hitler.
Spot the fallacy
Physical education classes are regularly opposed by
policy makers who want to promote more traditional
academic class in school. These policy makers are not the
most qualified people to promote these changes. The
issue with policy makers opposing physical education
classes is that most policy makers tend to be promotionseeking workers whose primary interest is moving ahead of
everyone else. They will often resort to using unethical
methods to attain advancement.
ad hominem
Spot the fallacy
Schools must ensure that enjoyable and healthpromoting physical education class is part of the
curriculum. Since students, even young students, spend
most of their time in the classroom, they may become
bored or distracted by the lack of physical activity. Many
students, as a result, look forward to physical education
(gym) class as something fun to break the tedium of the
classroom. While having fun, the students are also
becoming more health conscious through knowledge
provided by gym teachers and activities in gym class.
begging the claim
Spot the fallacy
Parties insisting on a decrease in physical education
classes support their views with research data that indicate
students’ math and language skills have dropped drastically
since more physical education classes were added to the
curriculum. While this may have some value, the parties
calling for less physical education classes ignore the fact
that gym teachers have studied just as hard as other
teachers and are a valuable component of the education
system. What they teach has significant value.
red herring
Spot the fallacy
Many people argue that sports should not be part of
the school curriculum. However, removing sports from the
curriculum will have dangerous consequences. Sports are
one of the best ways to encourage children to be physically
active. Removing sports from the curriculum will decrease
children’s interest in exercising and will lead to more obese
children.
slippery slope
Spot the fallacy
While eager parents often assert that more
academic classes, like math and science, should take
precedence over physical education class because those
classes have more value, they ignore the fact that physical
education class has real-world value for students by
teaching team work. Team work is a skill required in most
jobs because it is a necessary skill at work. Students learn
this skill through playing team sports like basketball and
soccer in gym class.
circular argument
Argumentative Writing – How to
Organizing your ideas – Make an outline
Organization type A:
Introduction (thesis statement)
Pro argument 1
Pro argument 2
Pro argument 3
Counterargument(s) and refutation [2 paragraphs]
Conclusion
Argumentative Writing – How to
Organizing your ideas – Make an outline
Organization type B:
Introduction (thesis statement)
Counterargument(s) and refutation [2 paragraphs]
Pro argument 1
Pro argument 2
Pro argument 3
Conclusion
Opposing arguments (counter-arguments)
A view/opinion/idea OPPOSED to your position.
Some may ask: “Wouldn’t this WEAKEN the argument?”
- If used improperly,
OF COURSE.
•
BUT…
Opposing arguments (counter-arguments)
If chosen well, counter-arguments make YOUR argument
stronger:
1.
It gives the writer the chance to respond to the
readers’ possible objections to the writer’s ideas
BEFORE they even finish reading.
2.
It also demonstrates that the writer is a reasonable
person who has considered both sides of the
argument.
How to present an opposing argument
You should express the counter-argument objectively.
(do not present it using overly negative language)
i.e., “Some people foolishly believe that…”
“For some crazy reason, it is thought that…”
“Unbelievably, some assert that…”
Remember: The point is to show the reader that you have
considered both sides carefully (and seriously).
How to present an opposing argument
An opposing argument can usually be presented in a
sentence (or a few sentences).
The important thing is to make sure you have presented
the opposing argument clearly and with enough detail that
it is understandable to the reader.
- If an opposing argument is not described
adequately, it will weaken the rebuttal.
- Doing so also makes the writer appear overly
biased or under-prepared to argue the issue.
To present an opposing argument in writing:
Here are some typical introduction phrases:
Many people [believe/argue/feel/think/suppose/etc.] that
[opposing argument].
i.e., “Many people argue that chocolate ice cream should be
banned from the KMU campus because it makes students too
happy, which creates a disruptive environment.”
“Many people assert that chocolate ice cream should
be banned from the KMU campus because…”
To present an opposing argument in writing:
Here are some typical introduction phrases:
It is often [thought/imagined/supposed/etc.] that [opposing
argument]
i.e., “It is often supposed that chocolate ice cream is
dangerous because it makes students too happy, which
creates a disruptive environment.”
“It is often thought that chocolate ice cream is
dangerous because it makes students too happy.”
To present an opposing argument in writing:
Here are some typical introduction phrases:
[It would be easy to/One could easily]
[think/believe/imagine/suppose/etc.] that [opposing
argument]
i.e., “One could easily believe that chocolate ice cream is
dangerous because it makes students too happy, thus
creating a disruptive environment”
“It would be easy to suppose that chocolate ice
cream is dangerous because it makes students too happy.”
To present an opposing argument in writing:
Here are some typical introduction phrases:
It might [seem/appear/look/etc.] as if [opposing argument ]
i.e., “It might seem as if chocolate ice cream is dangerous
because it makes students too happy.”
“It might appear as if chocolate ice cream is
dangerous because it makes students too happy.”
Refuting an opposing argument (rebuttal)
One of the most effective ways to refute/rebut an opposing
argument is to show that it is based on faulty assumptions,
logic, or ideas.
- The facts are wrong
- The analysis is incorrect.
- The argument is based on values that are not
acceptable.
Rebuttals - Examples
NOTE: These examples are related to a claim from
James Loewen’s book, Lies My Teacher Told Me (1995).
Our position: “To function adequately in society, students
must learn what causes racism.”
Thesis: Despite objections to this claim, to function
adequately in society, students must learn what causes
racism.
Opposing argument: Racism is a thing of the past;
therefore, students don’t need to bother with it.
“Some people argue that racism is a thing of the past;
therefore, students don’t need to bother with it.”
- This is faulty factual assumption.
What is the faulty (wrong) assumption here?
“Racism is a thing of the past”.
Opposing argument : “Some people argue that racism is a
thing of the past; therefore, students don’t need to bother
with it.”
This is faulty factual assumption.
“Racism is a thing of the past”.
Possible rebuttal:
One response could be to give facts (evidence) that show
that racism continues to be a problem.
Opposing argument : “Some people argue that racism is a
thing of the past; therefore, students don’t need to bother
with it.”
A second faulty assumption here:
- Student’s don’t need to think about what was is in
the past.
Possible rebuttal:
- Another possible response could be to show that students
must understand that past as well as the present “to
function adequately in society.”
Remember
You may also look for logical fallacies in opposing arguments.
- i.e,. Red herring, ad hominem, either/or, slippery slope.
How to present a rebuttal
Now that you have:
a) identified an opposing argument
b) determined how to refute it
it is now time to persuade the reader away from the opposing
argument by writing an effective rebuttal (refutation).
How to present a rebuttal
If an opposing argument requires clear signaling, then so
does the rebuttal (perhaps even more importantly!).
In stating a counter-argument, your essay has made a 180°
turn away from your claim, for the rebuttal, it is time to do
another 180° to complete your circle (return to YOUR
claim).
Your argument
opposing argument
The readers will benefit from a clear signal that the rebuttal
will begin.
Transition from opposing argument into
rebuttal
Here are some typical introduction phrases:
What this argument [overlooks/fails to consider/does not
take into account] is ...
i.e., “What this argument fails to consider is that racism
continues to be a problem in school and in everyday life
(SOURCE).”
Transition from opposing argument into
rebuttal
Here are some typical introduction phrases:
This view [seems/looks/sounds/appears.]
[convincing/plausible/persuasive/etc.] at first, but ...
i.e., “This view appears plausible at first, but the reality
is racism continues to be a problem in school and in
everyday life (SOURCE).”
Transition from opposing argument into
rebuttal
Here are some typical introduction phrases:
While this position is popular, it is [not supported by the
facts/not logical/impractical/etc.]
i.e., “While this position is popular, it is not supported
by the facts.
Transition from opposing argument into
rebuttal
Here are some typical introduction phrases:
Although the core of this claim is valid, it suffers from a flaw
in its [reasoning/application/etc.]
i.e., “Although the core of this claim is valid, it suffers
from a flaw in its reasoning.
Opposing argument: “Some people argue that racism is a
thing of the past; therefore, students don’t need to bother
with it.”
- Faulty assumption
Rebuttal: provide evidence that demonstrates that racism
continues to be a problem.
“What this argument fails to consider is that racism
continues to be a problem in school and in everyday life
(SOURCE). Every year, hundreds of news stories report on
conflicts that arise due to racial issues. In addition, hate
groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan continue to exist…”
Rebuttals
Opposing argument: Learning about racism might make
students more racist.
“One could believe that learning about racism
might make students more racist.”
Problem? – faulty analytical assumption.
- Assuming that learning ABOUT racism can MAKE
you racist.
Rebuttals
“One may believe that learning about racism might make
students more racist.”
This is faulty analytical assumption.
- Assuming that learning ABOUT racism can MAKE you
racist.
Response:
The response could state that understanding the causes of
a problem is not the same as causing or creating the
problem.
Rebuttals
Opposing argument: Who cares if students are racist?
Some people may ask the question, “who cares if
students are racist?”
Problem? - This is an example of faulty values.
What is the faulty value here?
- Assuming that people don’t care about students being
racist.
Rebuttals
Some people may ask the question, “who cares if
students are racist?”
This opposing argument is based on an assumed value
that the majority of readers probably do not share.
The response would be to point out this value, and state
why it is not believed that most readers share this value.
The key is to base your arguments on values that MOST
readers are likely to share (there are bound to be a few
racists out there, sadly).
Rebuttals
Opposing argument: Previous generations didn’t study
the causes of racism, so why should we start now?
“Some people may assert that previous generations
didn’t study the causes of racism, so why should we start
now?”
Response:
The response here would be to show that previous
generations did not “function adequately in society,”
because they had a lot of problems with racism (i.e.,
segregation and more hidden forms of discrimination).
Rebuttals
Opposing argument: Previous generations didn’t study
the causes of racism, so why should we start now?
Response:
The response here would be to show that previous
generations did not “function adequately in society,”
because they had a lot of problems with racism (i.e.,
segregation and more hidden forms of discrimination).
Therefore, the fact that previous generations did NOT learn
about causes of racism (evidence) supports the claim that
students DO need to learn what causes racism.
Rebuttals
Opposing argument: Students are already familiar with
racism; they don’t need to study it in school.
“It is often stated that students are already familiar
with racism; they do not need to study it in school.”
Problem? – While this may be true, it is irrelevant.
Our claim is not that students need to learn ABOUT racism
(that is assumed: many students already know about
racism); our claim is that students need to learn what
CAUSES racism.
Choosing opposing arguments
Obviously, some counter-arguments are better than others.
You want to use ones that are at least somewhat
persuasive.
You don’t gain anything by rebutting counterarguments that no one believes!
Choosing opposing arguments
Two things to look for in counter-arguments are:
1. Plausibility
(could a reasonable person possibly believe this
opposing argument?)
2. Popularity
(is it a well-known argument?)
Choosing opposing arguments
From our previous examples, which would be strongest?
Some people argue that racism is a thing of the past; therefore,
students don’t need to bother with it.
Learning about racism might make students more racist.
Who cares if students are racist?
Previous generations didn’t study the causes of racism, so why
should we start now?
Students are already familiar with racism; they don’t need to
study it in school.
Simple rebuttal form
Opponents say …[opposing argument]
However…[begin rebuttal]
Because [reason + evidence]
Therefore…[connect reason to rebuttal]
Simple rebuttal form
Opponents to public smoking say that smoking is harmful
for nonsmokers. However, this argument assumes that
smokers are responsible for the health of non-smokers. If
nonsmokers want to avoid cigarette smoke, they can walk
away from it because nonsmokers should look out for their
own health, as health is a personal responsibility.
Therefore, it is not the responsibility of smokers to protect
nonsmokers.