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CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING LIFESPAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT What is Development? Systematic continuities In changes and the individual Between “Womb Three conception and death to Tomb” broad domains Physical, Cognitive, Psychosocial Other Developmental Definitions Growth: Physical changes that occur from birth to maturity Aging: Positive and negative changes in the mature organism Maturation: The biological unfolding of the individual genetic plan Learning: Relatively permanent changes due to environmental experiences Age Grades, Age Norms, and the Social Clock Age Grade: Socially defined age groups Statuses, roles, privileges, responsibilities Adults can vote, children can’t Age Norms: Behavioral expectations by age Social Clock: When things should be done Children attend school Early adulthood – time for 1st marriages “Off time” experiences are more difficult Phases of the Life Span Before 1600: Children viewed as miniature adults Modern View: Children innocent, need protection Average life expectancy in 1900 was 47 years In 2000 it was 77.5 years Females: White=80, Black=76 Males: White=75, Black=69 Increasing population - age 65 and older Framing the Nature/Nurture Issue Nature: heredity Maturational processes guided by genes Biologically based predispositions Biological unfolding of genes Nurture: environment Learning: experiences cause changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors Interactionist view: nature & nurture interact The Bioecological Model Microsystem: Immediate environment Mesosystem: Relationships among microsystems Exosystem: Social Systems Macrosystem: Culture Chronosystem: Changes occur in a time frame This is an interactionist model Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development pictures environment as a series of nested structures. The microsystem refers to relations between the developing person and her immediate environment, the mesosystem to connections among microsystems, the exosystem to settings that affect but do not contain the individual, the macrosystem to the broader cultural context of development, and the chronosystem to the patterning over time of historical and life events. Researchers face many challenges in studying the developing person in context. Goals of Studying Life-Span Development Description Normal development, individual differences Explanation Typical and individually different development Optimization Positive development, enhancing human capacities Prevention and overcoming difficulties Methods of Studying Life-Span Development Historical Baby Biographies: Charles Darwin Questionnaires: G. Stanley Hall Key Assumptions of Modern Life-Span Perspectives Lifelong, multidirectional process Gain and loss and lifelong plasticity Historical/cultural contexts, multiple influences Multi-disciplinary studies Unique Challenges in Developmental Research Infants and young children Attention, instruction, answering questions may be difficult Elderly Adults Possible sensory impairments Discomfort being studied, tested The scientific method in action Conducting Developmental Research Self-reports: interview, questionnaires, tests Behavioral Observations Naturalistic Advantage: natural setting Disadvantage: conditions not controlled Structured (Lab) Disadvantage: cannot generalize to natural settings Advantage: conditions controlled The Experiment Three Critical Features 1. Manipulation of independent variable 2. Random assignment of individuals to treatment conditions 3. Experimental control Quasi-Experiment: No random assignment The Correlational Method Determine if 2 or more variables are related Correlation: A measure of the relationship Can range from +1.0 to –1.0 Positive: variables move in same direction Negative: variables move in opposite dir. Also tells you the strength of the relationship No relationship if correlation is 0 Cannot establish a causal relationship Developmental Research Designs Cross-Sectional Designs >1 cohorts or age-groups studied 1 time of testing Studying age differences at any one time Longitudinal Designs <1 cohort +1 time of testing Study changes across time in one cohort Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of development from age 30 to age 70. Age, Cohort, and Time of Measurement Effects Age effects: Changes which occur due to age Cohort Effects: Born in one historical context Changes due to differences in society Disadvantage of cross-sectional design Time of measurement effects: Historical Take place at time of data collection Disadvantage of longitudinal design Sequential Designs A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs Advantages of both designs Gives information about Which age-related trends are age effects Which age-related trends are truly cohort effects Which age-related trends are a result of historical events • A sequential study. This study begins in 1970 with a group of 30-yearolds studied longitudinally every 10 years thereafter. In 1980, a second longitudinal study is launched, in 1990 a third, and so on. Notice that at a point in time such as 2000 (orange shading) age groups can be compared in a cross sectional study. Notice too that 30year-olds from different cohorts can be compared (blue shading). Issues in Developmental Studies Random sampling Increases likelihood that sample is representative of population Protecting rights of research participants Must assess the benefit to risk balance Researcher responsibilities Informed consent, debriefing, protection from harm, confidentiality Cultural and Subcultural Sensitivity in Research Variety of contexts considered Culturally sensitive methods & measurements SES particularly important Ethnocentrism