Transcript Document
MGT8033: Twba. Session 4 - Diagnosis
Data collection, Information
gathering, Processing and
Feedback
Learning Objectives
Explain the importance of
diagnosis in the overall
organisational change process
Understand the basic principles of
data collection and analysis
To (identify and) understand
methods for collecting and
analysing diagnostic information
To learn how to feed back
diagnostic information
Collecting and Analysing Diagnostic Information
Major methods for collecting data
1.
Questionnaires
2.
Interviews
3.
Observations
4.
Unobtrusive methods
1. Questionnaires
Considered one of the most efficient ways
to collect data
Contain fixed-response questions
Administered to large numbers of people
simultaneously
Can be analysed quickly
Permit quantitative analysis
Data can easily be fed back to employees
1. Questionnaires
Advantages
Draw from large
samples/groups of
respondents
Attract and accommodate large
quantities of data
Relatively inexpensive
The activity isn’t time-bound
Disadvantages
Preset questions may not target
the real issues
Data can be misinterpreted or
overinterpreted
Respondets can misinterpret
questions
Subject to response bias
(including deliberate
misinformation)
2. Interviews
Most frequently used methodology in OD
Especially useful where there is trust between
managers and employees
Can be oriented to the individual or the group
Interviews may be highly structured
resembling questionnaires
may be unstructured
starting with general questions that allow the
respondent to lead the way
2. Interviews
Advantages
Flexibility – allows discretion re pursuing themes and further
clarification
Primary and rich data
Can build rapport with subjects, in which case more honest
and frank disclosure is possible
May be individual or group-oriented
Focus groups popular: can uncover info. on specific matters
and in great depth. In this form, the process can be quite
economical
2. Interviews
Disadvantages
Substantial time to plan, conduct and
analyse, with potential complications in
interpretation of outcomes
Comparative silence - ‘sleepers’ in group
interviews (focus groups) means some
views may not be aired. The prevailing
views then may not reflect accurately the
group view
Bias on the part of interviewer or
respondent(s)
3. Observations
A direct way of collecting data
Feature organisational behaviours in their usual functional
settings
Observer can be group member or completely detached from
the group or situation
If carried out ‘properly’ need not impinge on or influence
normal operations
This data collection method requires care/skill
3. Observations
Advantages
Yields data on actual
behaviour
Free of bias associated
with self-reporting
Focus on the present
whereas other methods
tend to be retrospective
Observer can readily
change point of focus
Disadvantages
Meaning behind observed
behaviours can be
difficult to determine
Observer bias possible
Sampling issues (see
Waddell et al 2011, p.
148)
Can be expensive
4. Unobtrusive measures
Data collected from secondary sources
Records are typically readily accessible
absenteeism, tardiness, grievances, quantity and
quality of production or service, financial performance,
correspondence with key stakeholders
Helpful in diagnosing group and individual
outputs
These data are recorded at various intervals
anyway, therefore trends can be identified
4. Unobtrusive measures
Advantages
Non-reactive, no
response bias
High face validity: can
be used to crosscheck
Easily quantified and
reflect ‘legitimacy’
Disadvantages
Access and retrieval
difficulties (data in a form
that’s useful to the company
but not the consultant
recording procedures are
subject to change, which
can make validity of data
questionable
Coding and interpretation
difficulties
Sampling-type concerns
Questions re how to go about data collection arise, e.g.
How many interviews? Who to interview? Which data are
pertinent? Which events should be noted? How often?
Can be circumvented when all org. members are
caught in the sample … but this is rare.
In most data collection for diagnosis, selections are
made. Sampling is more expedient and less a
resourcing drain on the enterprise.
Selections/samples typically need to reflect the
characteristics of the population.
Sampling-type concerns
Importance of sample size (how many events,
records, people are required?)
No definitive answer
Sample size decisions are informed by the size of
the population, (The larger or more complex the
pop., the more rigorous the data should be), the
required confidence in the accuracy and relevance
of the data (in which case the larger the proportion of
sample to pop. the better), and resources made
available for data collection (because resource
limitations restrict sample size.
Sampling-type concerns
Importance of sample selection
Simple random sampling is often used (every
person, behaviour event or record has equal
chance of being included)
For complex populations or many different
types or groups must be represented in your
sample, a stratified sample may be used.
Here, for example, the different member
types are allocated into mutually exclusive
sets, and a random sample is then taken
from each.
Some Techniques for analysing data
Qualitative tools
Content analysis
Force-field analysis
Quantitative tools
Means, standard deviations and frequency
distributions
Scattergrams and correlation coefficients
Difference tests
Feeding Back Diagnostic Information
Characteristics of effective feedback
Relevant (meaningful to org. members)
Understandable (readily interpreted)
Descriptive (reflect org. behaviours)
Verifiable (valid & accurate)
Timely (fed back as soon as practicable)
Comparative (benchmarking assists here)
Unfinalised (feedback is a spur for further action &
investigation)
Significant (limited to issues the members can reasonably
do something about)
Characteristics of the feedback process
Motivation to work with the data
Structure for the meeting
May involve some empowering. Members will use the data
insofar as they feel some sense of ownership
An agenda or direction required. Complicated when the
data reflect negatively
Appropriate membership
Suggests that those who are likely to be affected by the
impending change, must be included in the feedback
meeting
Characteristics of the feedback process
Appropriate power
Members need to be clear on which decisions are
already made, where they have some discretion or
input, and to what extent?
Little real power to influence changes means little
ownership of the data (or the problem)
Process help
Equates to active assistance from the consultant to
work through the issues collectively
Survey feedback steps
Involve organisation in preliminary
planning
Administer survey instrument
Analyse the survey data, tabulate results
and give suggestions for diagnosis
Feedback usually begins at the top of the
organisation and trickles down.
Limitations of survey feedback
Ambiguity of purpose
Difficulty reaching consensus
Distrust
High levels of distrust in the organisation can
render the survey feedback ineffective
Unacceptable topics
Organisational disturbance
Summary
Data Gathering
questionnaires, interviews, observation, unobtrusive measures
Sampling concerns
Data Analysis
Qualitative methods
Quantitative methods
Characteristics of effective feedback
Characteristics of the feedback process
Survey feedback (steps & limitations)