Transcript Psychology 3533 Understanding Human Sexuality

WORK AND RETIREMENT
Freud: Love and work are necessary for happiness,
health and adjustment
• Sixty-two percent of all workers now in the labor
force had no career plan when they started their
first job.
• The majority of current college students do not
have clearly defined career goals, as evidenced
by widespread “major hopping”.
• Most university graduates will not be working in
jobs directly related to their majors five years after
graduation.
WORK AND RETIREMENT (Cont’d)
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The median duration of first-job holding among young
adults is less than one year.
Young adults tend to stabilize in an occupation in their
mid to late 20s, primarily because of financial or family
obligations rather than because they have found an
occupation they really like.
Sixty-four percent of workers in one survey stated that if
they could start over, they would choose another career.
Over 50 percent said that they ended up in their jobs
either through the advice of others or by chance.
The majority of workers feel they could have been more
satisfied and productive if they had known how to make
better career decisions.
Age Differentiated Approach:
• 18-30: Education
• 30-65: Work
• 65+: Retirement
Age Integrated Approach: All 3 for all 3
• Education: More years for young due to
technological advances
• Need for “Work Breaks” – Work term programs
very useful
• Education Not Only for the Young:
Elderhostel Programs in N. America
Older Students in Universities
SOTA at MUN
Continuing Education Programs: Life-Long
Upgrading
• doctors, mechanics, university professors,
civil servants, teachers, secretaries,
lawyers, etc.
Continuing Education: Formal and Informal
Family influences on career choice
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Aspiration level:
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how high you reach correlates with SES (stronger
for men)
Men: fathers to sons influence
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low SES: obedience to and compliance with
authority
high SES: initiative, independence
Women:
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high SES: science
low SES: office work
if mom employed more likely to have career
if dad encouraging more likely to have career, postsecondary studies
Vocational Choice and Personality:
Holland – 6 Types:
• Realistic: physical, aggressive, good motor coordination,
not particularly verbal, prefers concrete problems,
conventional values
• Intellectual/Investigative: task-oriented, intraceptive,
asocial, likes ambiguous tasks, unconventional values
• Social: sociable, responsible, verbal and interpersonal
skills, humanistic, feeling-oriented
• Conventional: conformist, likes structured activities,
needs structure, extraceptive, materialistic, identifies with
power
• Enterprising: verbal skills, extraceptive, ambiguous
tasks, status, power and leadership
• Artistic: intraceptive, asocial, emotional, individualistic,
expressive
Most people mix of 2 or 3 types
Women mostly social, artistic, conventional
Stages in Career Development: Super
1. Crystallization: early adolescent (identity)
2. Specification: late adolescence, early adulthood
(training)
3. Implementation: young adulthood, specific steps
(trying out jobs)
4. Establishment: mid-20’s launch career path
(selecting one occupation and staying)
Stages in Career Development: Super (Cont’d)
5. Consolidation: mid 30’s big push
6. Maintenance: mid 40’s (in reality, big push
continues)
7. Deceleration: late 50’s (individual differences)
8. Retirement: 65
Outdated
Ginzberg: more accurate today
• Two patterns:
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stable
shifting:
women
economy swing
personal
Raynor: type of career track:
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Noncontingent: Low nACH (need for achievement)
(jobs)
Contingent:
(careers)
1. Fixed steps: medium nACH
2. Sky’s the limit: high nACH
Vocational Tests – Strong-Campbell
MUN Counselling Centre
Work and Gender:
Pre-industrial: home based, self-employed
Industrial era: men and women divergent paths
Men:
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breadwinner role
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aggressiveness
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socialization: toys
combat
fear of failure
Women:
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homemaker, wife/mother roles
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nurturant, supportive
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socialization: toys
fear of success
Women’s Career Paths:
• Most of the research on career development
done with men
• Women’s career paths differ significantly
Some of the reasons:
• Males socialized to be instrumental, goaloriented, achievement-oriented
• Females socialized to be expressive, nurturing
and dependent: relationship roles are central
• As wives, women’s career is seen as secondary
to the husband’s
Women’s Career Paths (Cont’d)
• As mothers, women seen as primary caretakers,
ultimately responsible
• In general, when work/family conflict arises, men
tend to put career first, women tend to put family
first
• The most demanding career-building years
coincide with the most demanding childbearing
and childrearing years
• The type of work women do also results in
radically different experiences: occupational
segregation
• Traditionally feminine work (secretary, school
teacher, nurse, clerk): this is more socially
approved, can be done on a part-time basis,
lower paid, more adaptable to family demands
Women’s Career Paths (Cont’d)
• Traditionally male-dominated work (engineering,
finance, law, construction, economics,
mathematics): women in these jobs are seen as
selfish, manipulative, untrustworthy, hard to work
with (Heilman et al., 2004). Affects their
evaluations and career outcomes negatively.
• Discontinuity: typically, women have many
interruptions for childbearing and childrearing
and for caring for older family members
Consequences:
• slower advancement (or stalling), lower income,
lower pension
• seen as not serious about their work
Women’s Career Paths (Cont’d)
• Women in science and engineering: few role
models, androcentric subculture. Discrimination
is subtle, but present (hiring and promotions).
Need critical mass for change. Russia: 75%
physicians, 50% engineers are women
• Women’s management style: consensus,
personal approach. Men’s: top down, more
impersonal. Women mostly stuck at middlemanagement level
• Burnout: feeling of loss of control, can’t cope,
often depressed, illnesses, emotional outbursts,
more common in “female” professions such as
nursing, teaching, social work. Frustration,
overload, little control over policy
Women’s Career Paths
Discrimination:
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hiring
salary
promotion
In general, women earn less than men
even with higher educational levels and for
the same or comparable work. (about 70
cents per dollar)
Biggest barrier: family/career conflict
Women’s Career Paths
• For all these reasons, women are not
promoted the same way as men, even if they
perform better.
• This has been called “the glass ceiling”,
because it is not a readily visible type of
discrimination, the way to the higher echelons
looks clear, but most women bang their
heads on the glass ceiling.
• Some researchers have referred to a “stone
floor” to which so many women are chained
to, without rising even to the glass ceiling.
• By contrast, men who leapfrog their way past
more competent women are said to be riding
the “glass elevator”.
80s and 90s:
• small changes in men:
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some increase in domestic participation
large changes in women:
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large numbers in the workforce
entering traditionally male jobs
increased higher education
Motherhood and Career:
Some variables:
• personality
• socialization
• level of energy, health
• type of job
• number of children
• husband, family support
Choices:
• stay home: loss of power, money, benefits
• part-time: marginalized plus the above
• mommy track: ditto
• full-time: poor child care, guilt, double shift
Some women don’t marry and/or don’t have
children
• 90+% of men top management jobs are fathers
• 60% of women in top management jobs are
mothers
Androcentric career clock and work demands
assume a wife at home to take care of
everything else
A. Hochschild coined the term “double-shift”:
• women do one work shift outside the home and
one inside
Barriers for women:
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Hiring practices
Promotion practices: glass ceiling or stone floor
No facilities in many male-dominated areas
Sexual harassment
Role conflict
Lack of mentors
“Queen Bee” syndrome
Socialization: fear of success (Horner), man’s work
more important
Second shift or double shift
Salary: 70 cents for $1 earned by men for equivalent
work and less qualifications
ex.: man with B.A. earns more than woman with M.A.
Dual Career Couples: increasingly common
Advantages:
• mutual understanding
• equality
• bigger income
• stimulating
Conflicts:
• time together – sex
• chores
• relocation
• role conflict (women)
• child care
Comparison with other industrialized countries:
Canada fares badly though better than U.S.
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RETIREMENT: result of longer lifespan
Earlier: death ended working
Activity vs. disengagement
Many work into 80s and 90s: health, SES
Incentives for early retirement
downsizing
second career
partial retirement
volunteering
leisure
caring for grandkids or elderly parents or
sick adult kids
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retirement communities, “RV towns”
Disengagement likely when:
• widowed
• poor
• loss of hearing, vision, mobility
• disease
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Planning for retirement:
In middle age (Havinghurst)
• hobbies
• second career
• finances
• health
Early retirement likely if:
• financially OK and in good health
• poor and sick
Retirement phases (Atchley)
1. Pre-retirement (Havinghurst)
2. Honeymoon
3. Disenchantment: can lead to re-entry to
job market or due to health and money
problems cause it
4. Reorientation
5. Stability
6. Termination: either through illness/death
or reintegration to the work force
Newest issue in retirement:
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Husbands and wives’ diverging paths,
too much ‘togetherness’
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Also, women usually younger than
husbands, continue to work or re-start
work after children grown up
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Over 65s who can’t afford to retire:
dependents, mismanagement of funds,
unexpected catastrophes, etc.
Reines (professional retirement planner)
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Stage 1. 55-70: active retirement, spend
70% of pre-retirement expenses. Travel
if possible
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Stage 2. stable: 70-85. Pattern of regular
activities, e.g. bridge on Tuesdays,
dancing on Fridays, golf on Mondays.
Expectations lower, happy. Spend 50%
of pre-retirement income
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Stage 3: limited retirement: 85+. Major
risks: loss of health and loss of income