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Higher Product Design Materials Materials Ferrous metal Thermoplastic Non-ferrous metal Metal Thermosetting plastic Plastic Softwood Wood Materials Hardwood Man-made board Composites Shape memory alloys Smart Materials Polymorph Thermochromic film GRP Click on a material title CFRP Lenticular sheet Wood Wood is an extremely useful natural material. It is hard and fibrous in nature and is made up of cells consisting of cellulose (natural resin) and lignin (the essential hard organic fibre). Wood is a natural polymer. There are three classifications of wood to be considered. These are: Hardwoods – slow-growing (100 years) Softwoods – quick-growing (30 years) Man-made boards – manufactured composites Click on appropriate star The terms hardwood and softwood refer to the rates at which the trees grow, rather than the type of timber produced from them. This is a botanical division and does not refer to the wood’s working properties. For example Balsa wood is a hardwood which is lightweight and very soft whereas Pitch pine is a softwood which is heavy and difficult to work. Wood Hardwood Hardwoods are produced from deciduous (shed their leaves annually) and evergreen broad-leaved trees. These trees grow in regions with warm temperatures such as parts of Europe, New Zealand and Chile, and in tropical regions of central and South America, Africa and Asia. The growth of hardwood trees is generally slow, taking around 100 years. This makes hardwood expensive. Tropical hardwoods retain their leaves and therefore grow quicker and in much larger girth and height. There are ecological issues to be considered when using tropical timbers, and the destruction of the world’s rainforests has led to a shortage of tropical hardwoods. Hardwoods generally have more attractive grain structures, textures and colours, and greater durability than softwoods. Examples Beech Ash Walnut Elm Mahogany Ebony Oak Teak Meranti Oak bark Wood Softwood Softwoods are mostly produced from evergreen conifers with thin needle-like leaves. These trees grow in regions of the Northern Hemisphere (such as Scandinavia, Canada and northern Europe) which have cold climates, and at high altitude elsewhere. The growth of softwood trees is much quicker than that of hardwoods and most become mature enough for felling in under 30 years. Softwoods are relatively cheap and are also easier to sustain by replanting. Softwoods can be easily identified by their open grain pattern and light colour. Straight grain gives a stronger timber which, being knot free, is easier to cut and shape. Examples Origin/colour Scots pine Northern Europe, Russia: Cream,pale brown Red cedar Canada, USA: Dark reddish brown Parana pine South America: Pale yellow with red/brown streaks Spruce (whitewood) Northern Europe, America: Creamy white Wood Man-made boards are wood-based materials manufactured by bonding together wood strips, veneers (thin layers), pulp or particles. They represent a very important manufacturing material, particularly in the furniture industry. Manufactured boards have a number of advantages over wide wooden boards or planks: There is a limit to the number of wide boards that can be cut from a tree and this makes it expensive. Manufactured board is available in sizes up to 1525mm wide whereas hardwood is typically 300mm and softwood is 200mm maximum. Manufactured board is stable and of uniform thickness and consistent quality. Metal There are two types of metal, ferrous metal and non-ferrous metal. Ferrous metal contains iron Non-ferrous metal does not contain iron A combination of two or more metals is called an alloy. An alloy is produced to have properties which could not be achieved with the individual substances. Metal Metals make up a major proportion of all the naturally occurring elements and form about a quarter of the earth’s crust. Gold is the only metal to be found in its pure state; all others are chemically combined with other elements in the form of oxides and sulphates. Metals are commonly available for manufacturing use in a wide range of forms and sizes. The range of sizes has to be vast because, unlike wood, metal cannot easily be converted from one size to another. Metal Ferrous metal Ferrous metals contain iron as the base metal. Historically they have played an important part in human development and remain vital to our everyday life. Almost all ferrous metals are magnetic. Steel is probably the most common ferrous metal; it contains carbon and its hardness depends on the amount of carbon it contains: e.g. mild steel is quite soft and contains 0.15 – 0.35% carbon, whereas high-carbon steel is very hard and contains 0.8 – 1.5% carbon. Examples of ferrous metal and alloy steels Cast iron Mild steel Medium-carbon steel High-carbon steel Stainless steel High-speed steel High-tensile steel Manganese steel Metal Non-ferrous metal Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron. Aluminium is the most plentiful metal in the earth’s crust and of all the non-ferrous metals it is the most used with regards to production output, due to its strength-to-weight ratio. Examples of non-ferrous metals and non-ferrous alloys: Aluminium Copper Tin Lead Zinc Casting alloy Duralumin Brass Bronze Tin plate Task 1 Using research techniques, list eight woods, man-made boards and a typical application for each. Man-made board Application 1. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. 2. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. 3. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. 4. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. 5. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. 6. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. 7. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. 8. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. Task 2 • • Using research techniques, list eight metals, their composition and a typical application for each. Man-made board Composition Application • 1. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. • 2. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. • 3. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. • 4. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. • 5. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. • 6. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. • 7. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. • 8. ………………………….. ……………………………………………. Plastics Materials Ferrous metal Thermoplastic Non-ferrous metal Metal Thermosetting plastic Plastic Softwood Wood Materials Hardwood Man-made board Composites Shape memory alloys Smart Materials Polymorph Thermochromic film GRP CFRP Lenticular sheet Forms of plastic supply • Plastics can be supplied in various forms: • • • • • • • • Profiled sheets, rods, tubes and bars Moulded compounds Thin layers of film and sheets Foam Casting compounds such as ingots Paint, varnish and lacquer for finishing Filaments and fibres Composites which contain reinforcing material Plastics • This group of materials is not easy to define because it covers a wide range of diverse substances. A basic characteristic is that at some stage the material is puttylike (‘plastic’): it enters a state that is neither solid nor liquid, but somewhere in between. At this stage shaping and moulding by heat and pressure takes place before setting into the desired form. • There are two groups of plastics: – Thermoplastics – Thermosetting plastics Thermoplastics Thermoplastics (‘thermo’ – heat, ‘plastic’ – the condition between solid and liquid) are made up of long chain molecules that are entangled but not bonded together. This means that after its original shaping or forming a thermoplastic can be reheated or melted and return to a workable plastic state. This is called ‘plastic memory’ : because if you heat and bend a thermoplastic sheet, let it cool to solidify, and then reheat it, it will try to return to its original form. Here are some common thermoplastics: Polyethylene (HDPE/LDPE) Acrylic (Polymethyl methacrylate) Polypropylene (PP) Nylon (Polyamide) Polystyrene (PS) Cellulose acetate uPVC (Polyvinyl chloride) ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) Plasticised PVC Thermosetting plastics Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) are also made from long-chain molecules like thermoplastics; but when the plastic is first formed the chains become chemically tied by covalent bonds (sharing of electrons) and are cross-linked. This causes the plastic to become rigid and nonflexible even at high temperatures. An egg yolk is a good analogy for this. When a yolk is raw it is in a soft liquid state, but if it is heated, it becomes hard and is no longer capable of becoming soft. Thermosetting plastics are often used when a product needs resistance to extremes in temperature, electrical current, chemicals and wear. Thermosets can resist impact when reinforced, an example being Glass Reinfored Plastic (GRP). Here are some common thermosetting plastics: •Epoxy resin (ER) •Urea formaldehyde (MF) •Melamine formaldehyde (UF) •Polyester resin (PR) Composite materials Nowadays products are increasingly being made from composite materials. A composite material has two or more substances which combine to produce properties (characteristics) that cannot be achieved by any of the individual substances. One of the substances forms the matrix (base material) and the other provides the reinforcement. The properties of the composite are controlled by the size and distribution of the reinforcing substance. Two examples of composite materials are: Glass fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) and Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) Glass-reinforced plastic This is a forming process. Glass fibre is combined with polyester resin (thermosetting plastic) to produce a very strong structure. The glass-fibre material is layered in a mould and coated with the polyester resin; the resin sets without heat or pressure needing to be applied, and when it is set it is very strong. Advantages of GRP Excellent strength-to-weight ratio Excellent tensile strength Impact resistance High corrosion resistance Uses Sports car bodies Boat and canoe hulls Caravan shells GRP Male mould Female mould GRP Smooth surface The mould is very important when forming GRP. The better the quality of the mould, the better the finish on the GRP. The moulds should be tapered to allow the product to be be removed easily. Radiused corner Radiused corner GRP Tapered to ease movement Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic This is a forming process similar to that used for GRP. Carbon fibre is embedded with resin to produce a material with a very good strength-to-weight ratio. It has good tensile strength with low density and it provides better corrosion resistance and fatigue performance than most metal alloys. Advantages of CFRP Excellent strength-to-weight ratio Excellent tensile strength Impact resistance High corrosion resistance Good aesthetic qualities Uses Racing-car bodies Fighter aircraft Bicycle frames Fishing rods Woven carbon fibres Carbon-fibre reinforced plastic Smart materials Shape memory alloys (SMAs) There is a number of alloys that exhibit useful memory characteristics. A combination of nickel and titanium (NITAL) is one of the most common. It can be heat treated to “remember” that when its temperature is raised to 70°C it should contract by 5%. Cooling to room temperature, it then relaxes to the original length. This alloy is increasingly used in place of bimetallic strips in coffee makers, etc., because all the movement takes place around the temperature change point. As a wire, it is now being used in garments where body heat changes the characteristics of the fabric. Smart materials Polymorph (polycapralactone) This relatively new polymer has an astonishingly low melting point of 62°C. It can therefore be melted underwater. As a solid, it has similar properties to an engineering nylon and can therefore be used for a wide range of prototype work where, after moulding by hand, the plastic is like the “real thing”. Pour a quantity of the sample into a glass or ceramic container (not plastic) and pour over very hot water. The granules will change from opaque to clear. When this happens, hook out the fused mass, allow the trapped water to cool to a comfortable temperature, and then squeeze out the water and mould the plastic. Smart materials Lenticular sheet Improvements in production technology have made it possible to produce sophisticated optical effects in a wide range of plastic films and sheets. Plastic Fresnel lenses, for example, are now common and inexpensive. Lenticular embossing has made it possible to print and animate many images on a single substrate. A similar technology is used to create stunning three-dimensional illusions on clear plastic sheet. If you place a piece of lenticular sheet lenticular side up on a darker surface, it will appear to be much thicker. The illusion is complete when you then place a coin over it. This will appear to sink into the material. Smart materials Thermochromic film/pigment This material comprises a substrate – e.g. self-adhesive plastic film – which is then overprinted with thermochromic liquid crystal ink. As the temperature changes, the liquid crystals re-orientate and produce an overall colour change. This material is used to give temperature indications – e.g. on thermometers and temperature warning patches places on ICs. It is also used on batteries for testing their condition. Thermochromic pigment can be added to plastic or paint which can then be formed or applied to have the new properties. Craft & Design: Unit 3 Designing for Manufacture Industrial Metal Processing Milling machine A milling machine has shaped cutter which can move in three axis to form 3D shapes. It is used to either form a component directly out of a solid blank or to machining features on a casting. Mill cutter Manual Milling machines have been all but replaced by CNC (Computer Numerical Control) mills. Here the component is first drawn using the CAD (Computer Aided Design) software. This automatically converted the drawing into a CNC program. CAD produced components for CNC milling The CNC program controls all the cutting and tool changes; all the operator has to do is remove the finished component. CNC Milling machine cutting a power drill component CNC Lathe Metal lathe The metal lathe is used to machine cylindrical or conical component in metal or plastic. The use of CNC lathes allows a component drawn on the CAD program to be converted automatically into CNC control program. Using CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) reduces the lead time, increases production and guarantees the accuracy of the component. Jointing techniques Welding is widely used to permanently join metals. Spot welding: This is used to join ferrous sheet together. The metal is gripped between the copper electrodes and the current causes the metals to melt and fuse together. Portable spot welder Arc Welding Manual arc welding uses a consumable electrode to join the plates. Steel, stainless steel and aluminium can all be welded. Riveting Riveting involves hammering or pressing a metal rivet until it expands and joins the two material together. For heavier work the rivet by be heated to red hot to make it easier to form. This was the traditional technique used to construct steel ship hulls but this method has been replaced by welding. Pneumatic pop rivet gun Pop riveting is used to join sheet metal or tube together. Unlike conventional riveting this technique does not require access to the back of the work. The pop rivet is inserted in rivet gun and the handle is pressed until the rivet snaps with a ‘pop’. Mechanical Fastenings There are hundreds of different fastenings that can be bought ‘off-the-shelf. These can be used to semi-permanently join materials together and allow them to be dismantled at a later stage as desired. Metal forming processes Sand Casting Sand casting is used for low to medium volume production. A wooden shaped pattern of the component is first made. This will have rounded internal corners (fillets), tapered sides (so it can be removed from the mould) and strengthening webs. Cast products Sand poured around the pattern and a runner and riser hole is made to allow the metal to be poured into the mould cavity. The metal (steel, aluminium, cast iron, brass) is heated in a crucible until molten then poured into the mould. Once cool the sand is removed and some finishing work is required to cut off the runner and riser and file away any ‘flash’ left where the two halves of the mould joined. Pressure Die Casting This is a high automated process suitable only for high volume production. Aluminium or zinc alloy is heated to molten and this is forced under pressure into a water-cooled shaped die. The metal cools, the die opens and ejector pins push the component out. This process requires very little finishing other than removing the sprues and runners and any flashes that have been caused by leakage of material between the parts of the die. Rotational (centrifugal) Casting Rotational moulding involves pouring the molten metal into a steel mould and then spinning it very quickly. This throws the metal against the mould and produces a hollow component with even wall thickness. Rotational moulded. The mould is placed in the centre and spun around until the metal cools. Products such as water and soil pipes are manufactured using this process. Extrusion Extrusion is often compared to squeezing toothpaste out a tube. Changing the shape of the opening alters the cross section produced. The metal is heated and placed in a cylinder. A hydraulic ram forces the metal out through a shaped die. The die forms the required section and normally no finishing is required. The material is then cut to length. Extrusion dies Products such as curtain rails and window frames are manufactured by extrusion. Rolling This is used to form long lengths of metal with the same cross section, but unlike extrusion only the outside profile can be shaped and less detail is possible. The final pass through the rollers is often done cold and this improves the finish and give a harder wearing surface. Drop Forging Drop forging involves stamping hot malleable metal between two halves of a shaped die. Often the work has to go through several dies in order to reach the required shape. The main advantage of this process is that working the metal hot means that the grain flow follows the product shape and this gives a much stronger component. Items produced by drop forging include hand tools, crankshafts and gear blanks. Press work Press work is the general term used to describe forming sheet metal. Blanking & Piercing Blanking when a shape is stamped out of sheet metal using a hardened steel die. The punch is forced through the strip and shears on the die. The shape is formed immediately in one press. Piercing is when an internal shape is stamped out of the sheet metal. Bicycle chains and jewelry chain links are examples of products made in this way. Industrial blanker/piercer Press forming Press forming is used to produce 3D object out of sheet metal by forcing it between two shaped dies. Examples of press formed products include are kettles, baking tins, tubular furniture, car bodies and aircraft frames. Press work Drawing Drawing is used to make products like drinks cans. The sheet metal blank is held in place by a pressure ring and a die is forced into the material drawing it down to form the required shape. The depth, which can be drawn in one punch, depends on the type of material, its tensile strength and the tool design. Vacuum Forming • Vacuum forming is used to shape sheet thermoplastic by heating it and then sucking it tightly around a former. Vacuum Forming • It is possible to use cheap wooden former which means that this process can be economically used for even low volume production runs. • Vacuum forming is used in the manufacture of acrylic baths, egg boxes, chocolate box trays and various packaging items. In Blow molding the air pressure is used to force heat softened plastic against a shaped mould. Blow moulding The cost of machining the two halves of the mould means that this process is best suited to medium to high volume production runs. Blow moulding is used to form hollow products such as bottles. Injection moulding This is perhaps the most common process used to form plastics. It is very expensive to set up but allows very fine detail to be moulded and the product requires no further processing or finishing. In this process the plastic granules are fed from the hopper passed a heater and then injected into the shaped mould cavity. Water circulating round the mould quickly cools the plastic and then the two halves open and ejector pins push out the finished product. The high mould cost makes this process only really suitable for high volume production. Compression moulding Compression moulding is commonly used to form thermosetting plastics such as phenol, urea or melamine formaldehyde. The plastic pellets are placed in a highly polished mould and subjected to heat and pressure. The heated material sets hard in the mould and is automatically ejected when ready. Compression moulding is used for items which can resist temperature i.e. saucepan handles and for other everyday items such as plugs, wall sockets and toilet seats. Extrusion The process of extrusion is like squeezing toothpaste from a tube and it is used to form components that require a uniform cross section along their length i.e. water pipes, cables, fibers for fabrics, fluorescent light covers and curtain rails. Thermoplastic granules are plasticised by heat and forced out through a shaped die. This determines the cross section of the extruded length. The extruded material is cooled and cut to length as required. Mould Manufacture The greatest expensive in any plastic forming process are the costs of manufacturing the mould. A simple wooden mould suitable for low volume vacuum forming may cost few hundred pounds but a water cooled polished steel mould with ejection pins may cost many hundreds of thousand of pounds. Modern technology with the linking of CAD and CAM systems has reduced both the lead time and mould cost. Laser scanners are also used to digitise simple 3D models and convert this into a program for a milling machine to form a mould suitable for injection moulding etc. Craft & Design: Unit 3 Designing for Manufacture Industrial Wood Processing Spindle moulder Spindle moulder is used to cut a shaped profile along the length of timber. It is used to form dado rails and skirting boards etc. Lengths of decorative mouldings The profile cutter is fitted in on the spindle so that it sticks up through the machine table. The length of timber is then fed over the revolving cutter to form the required profile. Spindle moulder cutter Router Hand held plunging routers are used to cut joints or form shaped profiles on timber. Changing the router cutter alters the profile or joint being cut. Double ogee cutter Industrial workshops use CNC (Computer Numerical Controlled) routers. Here the product is created using CAD (Computer Aided Design) and this automatically generates the control program for the CNC router. The CNC program controls all the movement of the router cutter and allows a 3D component to machined in wood. Saws Jig Saw: hand held and used for general purpose cutting including curve work. Produces a rough finish of cut. Hand held circular saw: used to cut boards to length or width. Produces a straight clean cut. Fret saw: piercing or cutting tight curves on timber. Radial Arm Saw: portable saw used to cross cut boards to length or for angled cuts such a mitres. Band saw: used for curved or irregular cuts, bevelled and straight cuts. It allows a much deeper cut than the table saw. Table circular saw: used to cut timber to width and length. Produces a clean accurate cut. Planer / Thickness The Planer/Thicknesser is used machine smooth the surface and reduce the thickness of solid timber boards. The gap between the thicknesser is set to the required size and the timber is fed in. Rotating blades remove the excess wood. However, the depth of cut is limited to around 2mm and so a series of cut is often required. Using a non-standard thickness of timber in a design has an obvious cost implication because the excess wood and machining time must be added to the overall product cost. Wood lathe The wood lathe is used to form bowls or cylindrical shapes. Manual lathes are suitable for low volume production where the operator may use a template to ensure each item is machined the same. For mass production an automatic Copying Lathe is used. Here the cutting tool follows a profile of the component and allows multiple copies to be rapidly machined to a consistent shape and standard. Laminating Laminating involves gluing up layer after layer of solid timber with all the grain running in a parallel direction. In the roof shown opposite the timber was steam bent and laminated to form the long curved beams. Laminating timber allows large and structurally reliable sections to be constructed. The strength and size of the part can be guaranteed, something not possible with solid timber. Testing a laminated roof beam for strength Jointing techniques Hand crafted joints are now only every used in the production of expensive one off pieces of furniture. Industry uses automated techniques to join wood. This along with the rise in manufactured boards, such as MDF, has lead to the rise in the use of dowel and biscuit joints. Biscuit joint The popularity of ‘flat-packed’ furniture with its low cost and easy of transportation and storage has resulted in the growth of knock-down fittings. These allow the buyer to assemble furniture with just a few simple tools. Cutting the slot with the Biscuit jointer