Transcript Theories of Human Development

Socialization: Family
Chapter 15
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The family is a social system – networks
of reciprocal relationships that are
constantly evolving
– Direct effects
– Indirect effects
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Parent effects model
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Child effects model
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Transactional model
Parenting Styles
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Baumrind
– Dimensions of parenting:
 Acceptance/responsiveness
 Demandingness/control
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Figure 15.2 Two major dimensions of parenting. When we cross the two dimensions,
we come up with four parenting styles. BASED ON MACCOBY & MARTIN, 1983.
Child-rearing pattern
Preschool Outcomes
Authoritative
Cheerful, socially responsible,
self-reliant, achievement
oriented, cooperative
Authoritarian
Moody, unhappy, easily
annoyed, unfriendly, aimless,
not pleasant to be around
Permissive
Impulsive and aggressive,
bossy, self-centered, lacked
self-control, low in
independence and
achievement
Indulgent
None in study…
Outcomes
Child-rearing
pattern
Authoritative
Childhood
Adolescence
Authoritarian
Average cognitive and
social competencies
Average academic
performance and social
skills; more conforming
than adolescents of
permissive parents
Permissive
Low cognitive and social
competencies
Poor self-control and
academic performance;
more drug use than
adolescents of
authoritative or
authoritarian parents
High cognitive and social High self-esteem,
competencies
excellent social skills,
strong moral/prosocial
concern, high academic
achievement
Child-Rearing Patterns and
Adolescence
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Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, and
Dornbusch (1991)
– measures of psychosocial competence and
psychological and behavioral dysfunction
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A parent takes a child to a shoe store and
the parent selects three pairs of shoes
that are acceptable to the parent in price
and type. The child is told, “You may
decide which you would like. This is what
we can afford and I think these are
suitable styles and quality.” (Think about
what impact this parenting style might
have on the child’s eventual ability to pick
out shoes on his/her own.)
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A parent takes a child to a shoe store and
says, “What do you like?” The child
selects a pair that costs more than the
parent can afford or that is not a suitable
type of shoe in the parent’s judgment.
The parent says, “No, I can’t buy that
pair.” The child whines and fusses until
the parent gives in.
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A parent takes a child to a shoe store and
tells the salesperson, “We’ll try on those.”
The child is given no say and ends up with
a pair of shoes that s/he hates. The child
feels disrespected. (“No one asked me
what I wanted.”) The child says nothing
out of fear of parental love-withdrawal
(parent pouts and gives child silent
treatment) or fear of harsh reaction
(parent says, “You are just a spoiled brat;
you don’t appreciate anything I do for
you!” or parent slaps or spanks child for
complaining).
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Appropriate behavior needs:
– Compliance
– Internalization of standards
Effects of Prohibitions
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Carlsmith
– Kindergarteners rank toys on attractiveness
– E leaves, told not to play
– Mild vs. severe threat
– Temptation period
– Preference for toys assessed
Effects of Prohibitions
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Are they using this time to reflect on
their behavior and attribute it internally
or externally?
What if children are told that all other
children had obeyed E?
If given before the temptation period,
what would you expect?
If given after the temptation period,
what would you expect?
Effects of Rewards
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magic markers and paper set up on a table in
a preschool classroom
children who drew with them during free time
were later taken to another room and asked to
draw again
3 conditions:
–
–
–
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expected reward
unexpected reward
no reward
2 weeks later markers returned to table in
classroom
Minimum Sufficiency Principle
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it’s important to produce compliance
failure to gain compliance reduces
likelihood of future compliance
must exert enough control to gain
compliance
control is subtle enough to not be
perceived as sole reason for compliance
Behavioral vs. Psychological Control
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Behavioral control
– regulating conduct through firm but
reasonable discipline and monitoring activities
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Psychological control
– attempts to influence a child/adolescent’s
behavior by psychological means
– Separation anxious
– Achievement oriented
Social Class Differences
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Low SES parents compared to middle SES
parents
– stress obedience and respect for authority
– more restrictive and authoritarian
– more likely to use power-assertive discipline
– less likely to show warmth and affection
Explanations for SES Differences
More stress
 Work-role requires deference to authority
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Sibling Relationships
80% of Americans grow up with at least
one sibling
 Drop on maternal involvement with older
child with birth of baby
 Older sibs become more domineering,
aggressive, and also more likely to initiate
helpful, playful, and other prosocial
behaviors
 Younger sibs become more compliant
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Sibling Relationships
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Sibling Relationships During Middle
Childhood and Adolescence
– during middle childhood  increase in conflict
– continue to rely on each other for
companionship, emotional support, and
assistance with everyday tasks
Sibling Relationships
Parents harmony matters
 Parental monitoring matters
 Sibling relationships are better if parents
respond warmly and sensitively to all
children
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Sibling Relationships
Siblings provide emotional support
 Siblings can be models and teachers
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Children in one-child families  welladjusted and socially competent
 May even be more obedient and slightly
more intellectually competent
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Adoptive Families
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Sensitivity associated with secure
attachment
Can bring issues related to insecure
attachments from previous homes…
Unresolved curiosity about roots
Transracial or transcultural adoption 
identities are healthy blends
Move towards open adoptions
Donor Insemination Families
Infertile couples/single women
 Concerns
 Golombok’s 12-year longitudinal study
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Figure 15.4 Sexual orientation of adult children raised by lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and
single-parent heterosexual mothers. (Notice that children with homosexual parents are just as
likely to display a heterosexual orientation as children raised by heterosexuals. ADAPTED FROM
BAILEY ET AL., 1995; GOLOMBOK & TASSER, 1996.
Family Conflict and Divorce
40-50% of marriages end in divorce
 More than half of children will spend time
in a single-parent home
 Not a singular life event
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– Often begins with marital conflict
– Includes many life changes
Family Conflict and Divorce
Period prior to divorce often includes a
rise in family conflict
 Regular exposure to marital discord
contributes to adjustment problems,
including anxiety, depression, and
externalizing disorders
 Direct and indirect effects
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Divorce
Families often disrupted for a year or more
after divorce
 Friends/financial situation may change
 Mothers may be overwhelmed with new
responsibilities
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Divorce
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Period immediately following divorce
associated with more negative outcomes
– high level of conflict during that time
– adverse economic conditions
– stresses resulting from mother having to
start work or increase hours
– compound effects of the father leaving and
the mother being physically and emotionally
less available to the child
– child often temporarily “loses” both parents
Divorce
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Children’s initial reactions vary as a
function of gender and age
– Preschool/early grade school
– Preteen/early teens
– Adolescents
Divorce
Long Term Reactions to Divorce
 Better for a child to be in a stable singleparent home than a conflict-ridden twoparent home
 Not all divorcing families experience all of
the difficulties mentioned previously
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Divorce
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Longitudinal data from the large-scale
longitudinal National Survey of Children:
– poor relationships with their fathers and
mothers
– dropping out of high school
– repeating a grade
– being in the lower half of class
– receiving psychological help