Unit 1 Exploration

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Economic Expansion and Innovation

   Emphasis on Humanism and Individualism created desire to expand trade and eventually explore new lands.

In 1350 Europeans knew only what they had known about the world for 1000 years- by 1650 it is all different A true “global” economy transformed the social order.

Commercial Revolution

  Europe has been an agricultural economy from fall of Rome- during this time focus will begin to turn first to trade, then to business- which will begin to create the modern economy Invent modern business practices like bookkeeping, banking and investment (stocks)

Hanseatic League

  Group of German states who formed a trade federation during the middle ages.

Early example of capitalism and business planning.

Population Increases, Food Prices, Urban Growth

• • • After downturn of Black Death, population began to grow again in the 1400s- pop. Rose 50% between 1470-1620. Cities grew correspondingly (London went from 50-200k) Food prices rose b/c agriculture didn’t grow as fast as population ($$ to be made farming) Enclosures: Began in England. To make more $$, landowners enclosed “common” lands so farming would be more efficient. Pushed peasants off land, moved to cities and became laborers

Price Revolution

 Between 1500-1700 there was a long slow period of inflation (prices and wages) encouraged people to get into business, and for countries to get into trade  Overall- standard of living in Western Europe increases  Putting Out System: Guilds often controlled trades in towns. To get around them, entrepreneurs had products made (in stages) at worker’s homes- they were paid by piece.

Capitalism/Mercantilism

• • • Capitalism: Econ system based on private ownership of property and business that produces goods to be sold in a free market w/o gov’t intervention. Defined by Adam Smith Mercantilism: Responsibility of gov’t to create the best econ, they should protect domestic business through tariffs Joint Stock Co: Companies formed by groups to minimize risk (pop. For exploring) Often used in Eng/Holland, where gov’t encourage private exploration and business (as opposed to Sp/Fr which were absolutist) • Bullionism: a country should have as much gold on reserve as possible • Countries wanted a favorable balance of trade (selling more than they buy) Colonies will become important for this as sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods

Technological Advances

• • • • Before they could explore needed to improve sailing techniques.

Adapted foreign inventions- like Compass and Astrolabe.

Redesigned ships (flat bottom from Med.) to go in deeper waters and to carry cannon New Mercator projection allowed more accurate mapping • Used Cross staff and Quadrant to measure latitude (as well as astrolabe) • Portuguese invented Caravel: deep hulled ship with both Lateen and Square sails- good for many types of waters. Has a Axial (side) rudder

Expansion Overseas

• • Europe has been interested in trade with Asia since Middle Ages (Crusades, Marco Polo) but Ottomans control Silk Road ( and Italy controls Med. Trade with Ottoman ) so they work on a Sea Route to Asia. (never been done) Iberians 1 st involved- they had issues with Islam, were close to Atlantic- and all fired up from Reconquista and unification of their country

Glory, God and Gold

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Motivations for exploration. Believed in the power of man, had strong religious fervor (esp. Spain) and knew there was $$ to be had from treasure, and in the long run from successful trade

Portuguese

• • • • Chased Muslims across straight of Gibraltar and attacked Morocco in early 1400s. Saw wealth of Sahara trade- wanted in.

Prince Henry the Navigator- founded navigation/sailing school, and funded exploration of W. African coast.

Bartholomew Dias 1488- rounded Cape Vasco di Gama 1497- reached India

Spanish

• • Columbus says it’s faster to go west to reach Asia. Made 3 voyages- claimed to have found Asia (died thinking he had) Exploration a huge blow to Italian economy (cheaper to go straight to sources) Econ/Political decline of Italy begins • Europeans assumed all other civilizations were inferior.

• • Portuguese came to trade (and go home) Spanish came to claim and conquer.

Success came from “Guns, Germs, and Steel”

Amerigo Vespucci

  1 st to realize (out loud) that Euro had found a new world- NOT Asia. Explored in Brazil Continent named for him b/c he told German Cartographer he was first to reach South America. (actually Pedro Cabral 1500)

Bartholomew de la Casas

 1552 wrote “brief account of the the destruction of the Indies” which criticized European colonialism and Columbus

Vasco De Balboa

 1513 First European to see Pacific ocean (which he named) Claimed central America for Spain

Treaty of Tordesillas

     1493 Spain and Portugal fear bumping into each other during exploration- go to Pope for mediation.

Pope draws an imaginary line down a map of the world (adjusted a few years later) Spain gets everything to the west: N/S America (except Brazil- the adjustment) Orients them towards the Americas- where they take over and introduce profound change Portugal gets everything to east- Africa/India (and Brazil) Did get to “claim all land” like Spain- but est. trade routes were there. Less domination, more joining in the party.

Spanish Empire

    Had clear-cut “enemies” civilizations to defeat and dominate to control territory.

Cortez: Aztecs 1519 fast defeat Pissarro: Inca 1532 fairly slow to defeat Use treasure to buy manufactured goods rather than develop industry, puts them behind    Actually more like imperialism of 1800s – conquer and subjugate established civilizations.

Colonies existed to serve mother country (mercantilism) in Spain’s case- to produce treasure. 25% of kings income came from mines of Peru. Divided territory into 4 “viceroyalties” New Spain, Peru, La Plata, Columbia

Portuguese Empire

     No specific civilizations to defeat of conquer. Trade along Swahili coast, India, and Malaysia.

Establish trade “forts’ (fortifications) to trade slaves, gold, and other products Stay on coast- don’t go far inland.

Less missionary (though they did try- Francis Xavier in Asia) b/c it wasn’t generally effective with Muslims and Hindus

Spanish Colonial Economy

 Native population decimated by European disease.

 Encomienda: Europeans claimed land, and the people who lived on it as their serfs (but they die) Begin to import slaves from Africa (works better) and becomes basis of agricultural econ in Caribbean, Brazil et…(sugar)  Peru was where the silver mines were- so a mining econ there ( still slave labor, but more native than African ) Mixed blessing- gave $$ caused inflation made their ships targets for pirates

Society in Colonial Latin America

  Social division by Race (new thing for Europeans) Sociodad de la Castas. Brought Patriarchal society and imposed in on Americas Europeans- either peninsulare or Creole   Mestizo (euro/native) Mulatto (Euro/African)   Indian Slave (African)

Dutch, English and French Colonialization

• • Econs already trade based (esp. Dutch/Eng) but protestant work ethic drove them to work hard.

Dutch followed Portuguese into long distance sea trade Muslims liked them, Calvinists aren’t missionary- but they used their guns to make advantageous trade deals • • • Excited by Iberian success (especially treasure- though other Euros never really hit that jackpot) Set up forts at “pinch points” to control trade routes. (focus on pacific trade) Built Capetown in S. Africa as a stopping point

Joint Stock Company

• • • Kings didn’t finance as much for this 2 enterprise.

nd wave (France exception) done more through private Dutch East/West India Co British East/West India Co • Trade corporations became virtually law unto themselves b/c they had so much power

Exploring North America

• • • Britain: got a late start b/c of War of the Roses and Tudor issues. Walter Raleigh went during reign of Elizabeth I ( lost colony of Roanoke, and Seadogs to steal Spanish $$) Jamestown founded 1607, Plymouth 1620. British colonies founded for econ/religious reasons, not treasure/conquest.

France: Sent Jacques Cartier to search for NW Passage didn’t settle till later. Fur trade base of econ rather than agriculture (too cold- Calvinists not allowed to go) Royal colonies, but king not very involved Dutch: Not into big settlements. Bought Manhattan from Indians and set up New Amsterdam, goes to English 1674.

Mercantilism

  Purpose of colonies is to help mother country. Colonies supposed to provide raw materials (fur, timber etc..) and a market for finished goods. Only allowed to trade with mother country. Puts focus of newly created “global” econ on Europe.

Relations with Amerindians

• • • North American population relatively small and localized. (semi-nomadic) Europeans generally displaced rather than conquered. Native lifestyle dramatically changed with introduction of horses and guns ( esp for plains Indians ) Socially- not much mixing of Euro/native (indentured servitude and African Slavery) Europeans recreated social world they knew. More mobility- people came to colonies, worked hard, and did well

Global Exchanges

  Sustained contact between East/West hemispheres had profound impact Biologically and commercially.

World radically altered by global networks of exchange   For Europe- what they find in new world will bring improved diet, increased wealth, and global empires.

For the new world- mostly catastrophic

Slavery

  African slavery Introduced to European colonies by the Portuguese in Brazil.

Had never really been a part of European society colonial slavery was unique in scope and scale. 60% of pop. Of Brazil slave, 90% of population of Caribbean.

Columbian Exchange

• • • Global diffusion of plants and animals (hemispheres had been out of touch for millennium) From Americas (West) Beans, squash, tomato, sweet potato, peanuts, chilies, chocolate, corn, potato, avocado, pineapple • • From Euro/Asia (East) Wheat, Rice, sugar, olives, grapes, coconuts, bananas, horse, cow, citrus, melon, sheep, goat, rabbit, rat.

And disease….Smallpox, typhus, measles, deadliest for natives. America did give Euro Syphilis and Malaria. But food improvements increased pop. With time

Economic Crisis/Realignment

  Massive influx of silver to Spain created high inflation (2% a year) Prices doubled in 50 years, quadrupled in 100. Add that to wars of religion and you have serious econ problems   Population of Europe grew from 1450-1650, the dropped from 1650 1750.

Cities continued to see growth, farmers lost land

Social Changes

 Peasants still the largest segment of the population but not AS likely to be farming/rural.

Effects of Econ/War on Social Class

• • • • A lot of change during this age…..

Nobility was losing power to kings. Gentry/middle class (called Bourgeoisie in France) growing in power prestige. Artisans losing influence to joint stock co, peasants losing land to enclosure/inflation. Times hard for them lots of minor peasant uprisings.

Demographic movement from country to cities

Education

  Reformation led to need for better educated clergy. Growing commerce led to need for literate clerks and lawyers. Growing empires needed educated bureaucrats All this created more schools, and better opportunities- keys for social advancement. (at least for men)

Family Life and Status of Women

• • • • • 1/5- ¼ of children born didn’t survive to grow up. Childbirth the leading killer of women- 1 in 10 births fatal for mother. Average lifespan for men 27, for women 25.

Husband head of the house wife his “helper Bloodletting still common treatment for illness. During bad econ times people limited the # of children- married later. Sensuality characteristic of the era- voluptuous women, muscular men. Homosexuality mentioned in literature, prostitutes common.

Witch Hunting

• • • Had always existed. 1550 1648 the last great “burst” 100,000 arrest, 60,000 executed (mostly women) Linked to heresy- a result of economic problems (scapegoating) Almost as if they are getting it out of their system as they move towards scientific revolution • Women considered “weaker” then men, more prone to temptation- they represented 80% of victims. Generally unmarried (esp. unmarried and in middle age independent women automatically suspicious.) Midwives most common target.

Regional Economic and Social Variation

• • • • 1550-1648 balance of economic power changed. Southern Europe’s dominance declines- replaced by Northwest. (Mediterranean trade down- Atlantic up) Spain starts hurting- not commercial based- and commerce is what’s growing.

Economic changes will be as impactful as ideas of Renaissance/Reformation in changing lives. A transformation of way things are done is beginning Eastern Europe- still feudal agricultural system. Nobles benefitted from changes, Peasants did not.

Chapter 7: New Cultural and Scientific Developments

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Art and Literature

 Renaissance art was an explosion of new ideas which shifted into new area/forms as time period continued

Art: Mannerism

  Reaction to Renaissance art. During 1520-30s artists deliberately distorted renaissance principles (like perspective- mannerists like to elongate) to convey a message- often of stress (anxiety/suffering) or escape from reality.

El Greco: used odd color and effects to convey message     Concept was that high renaissance had taken art to “perfection”- couldn’t be improved, so it went in a new direction.

Liked unnatural colors and shapes Tintoretto: Venetian. Used twisted poses and compression of shape El Greco- worked in Spain- shows their moment of power

    Originated in Italian states around 1600 (named for baroque pearls). Popular in RC territories Meant to evoke passion and mystery as opposed to harmony. Used grandeur (not simplicity) dramatic color and shading energetic figures Peter Paul Rubens Artemisi Genti’leschi

Baroque

    Associated with the Church and counter reformation- sought to overwhelm the viewers create a dramatic experience. Popular with absolutist kings as well church Caravaggio Diego Velasquez

Architecture/Sculpture

  Again, trying to create a sense of grandeur. Massive interiors of palaces and popes filled with sculptures and spirit larger than life.

Gian Lorenzo Bernini finished St. Peters. The “throne of St. peter” seems to hover in the air surrounded by clouds and angels   Baroque architecture the style of the great palaces Versailles, Schoenbrunn, the Hermitage Bernini also did the “Ecstasy of St. Theresa” and fountains all over Rome

  Very different- influenced by Protestantism (specifically Calvinism) Quiet works expressed personal issues- like faith. No royal court, chief patrons were merchants (lots of portraits) Rembrandt Van Rijn: quintessential Dutch painter- used light/dark, detail and humanity in his portraits (including his own)

Dutch Style

   Intention was to be dignified- not overwhelm.

This was the golden age of Holland- and the art reflects their love of commerce and toleration for secular issues.

Jan Vermeer: Domestic interior scenes

Literature

  Very much of its time- reflects the problems/issues of Europe between 1550-1648. Valued knowledge and education over brute strength of the warrior.

There had been a big jump in literacy- more people had access to more information than ever before.

Michel de Montaigne

 French noble- but he disapproved of noble mindset of war/sport over intellect..

 Humanist- wanted to know himself, believed he had to do that to live well.

  Developed Essay as a writing style-expressing his thoughts/ideas. A Skeptic: expressed doubts that total knowledge can ever be obtained. A break with the writers of the past- anticipated the thoughts of the enlightenment

Miguel de Cervantes

 Spanish- very upset by what was going on in Spain ( Inquisition, forced expulsions/conversions )  Don Quixote- a satire that ridiculed the noble mindset and showed gap between ideals and reality. Don Quixote himself sees only the ideal doesn’t recognize the real world, Sancho sees only reality- doesn’t recognize ideal. Careful to avoid politics- but commented on cruelty and hypocrisy of humanity

William Shakespeare

  Elizabethan age was a golden age of British literature- esp. for drama (1 st time since classical age where it has been a major art form) Shakespeare’s plays reflected the concerns of his age- the nature of power, the crisis of authority, and the rise of nationalism  3 major “types” of plays    Dramas like: Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Macbeth or King Lear Comedies like: The Tempest, A Midsummer Knight’s Dream, Much Ado about Nothing, or The Taming of the Shrew Histories like: Julius Caesar, Anthony and Cleopatra, Richard III, or Henry V

Scientific Revolution

  Growing humanistic/secular interest in world made people want to understand the world. Took knowledge and theories from classical age to new levels with direct observations. Believed in power of human reason, reinforced changes in world view from Renaissance and Reformation

Medieval View of the World

  Science had been governed by religion science=theology. Aristotle (really smart but often wrong) was the main expert- not allowed to dispute ideas which had been accepted by the church – like the earth is the center of the universe

Causes of the Scientific Revolution

   Medieval universities included “Natural philosophy” (science, math, astrology, physics) as a branch of study. So many rediscovered classical ideas were around- anxious to add on Navigational issues led to new needs and discoveries (esp. in astrology) Creating a new world view which will profoundly impact the world view of the 17 th /18 th century.

Astronomy

  1 st “modern” science- 1 st to question and prove beliefs considered “infallible” wrong.

Develop idea of working from empirical evidence borrowed start from Muslims (Nasir-al-Din)

Nicholas Copernicus

 1473-1543  Polish monk commissioned by pope to revise the Julian Calendar (based on work of Ptolemy) which said earth was the center of the universe. But Copernicus’s calculations showed the earth was moving.

 Wrote “ On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres ” which described his findings, but didn’t publish until dying, and didn’t LIKE that his work questioned doctrine. Freaked people out- even Luther and Calvin condemned

Tycho Brahe

• 1546-1601 Built a massive observatory and collected tons of data on universe. Cornerstone of knowledge for years- data backed Copernicus. Irony was that he began collecting data because he didn’t like idea of heliocentric theory • Used the Copernican model to develop comprehensive more comprehensive theories about the solar system and universe overall

Geocentric vs. Heliocentric

• Geocentric: theory of Aristotle and Ptolemy (330 bc, 200 ad) – the earth is the center of the universe. Accepted by church therefore infallible fact. (which was logical to a point- you can watch the sun move…and if God made the world, and gave it his son…..) • Heliocentric: theory of Copernicus. The Sun and stars don’t move- planets move. Therefore the sun is the center of the universe. (don’t quite get whole universe thing yet) Freaky for people to think of themselves as one piece of an infinite- aren’t we special?

Johannes Kepler

 Discovered that planets move in ellipses. Published as a young man, got in plenty of hot water  First protestant scientist. Proved Copernicus mathematically, developed 3 laws of planetary motion. (ellipses not constant speed, closer to sun the faster you go)

• • • 1564-1642 Invented telescope for astronomy in 1609. Confirmed Copernicus and wrote for general audience- not just scientists- made idea widespread (wrote in Italian) Forced to recant- his book “the Starry Messenger” put on Index of Forbidden books

Galileo

• • Used newly developed scientific method to verify his work. Also studied gravity and laws of inertia (object in motion….)

Chemistry, Biology and Science

  Have defined elements or atoms yet- so that limits them, but still there are significant discoveries made.

Gunpowder an important practical improvement (how to store more safely etc…)

Andreas Vesalius

 Book “Structure of the Human Body” (1543) renewed and modernized the study of anatomy. Found errors in Galen’s (ancient Greek) knowledge and corrected. Didn’t throw out old info- just improved

Anton Van Leuwenhoek

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1632-1723

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Father of microscopy developed 1 capillaries

st

microscopes. 1

st

to see and write about bacteria, and see circulation in the

William Harvey

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1578-1657

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“on the movement of the heart and blood” – first to suggest circulation and heart/lungs role in it.

Bacon and Descartes

 Both philosophical in approach- asking questions, and questioning “assumed” knowledge

Deductive v. Inductive

 Deductive: starts with an accepted truth and moved forward from there using assumptions/facts. Used by Greeks and Scholasticism. But science asked- what if base assumption is wrong?

 Inductive: does not start with assumption of truth- but finds truth after long process of experimentation. Modern Scientific Method

Francis Bacon

• • • • 1561-1626.

Not actually a scientist Lord Chancellor of Eng. , but was interested in HOW to acquire knowledge. Wanted to start from scratch, abandon all preconceived ideas, look at world through new eyes. Inductive reasoning= empirical method. Didn’t get math… • Confident that humans can understand the world, and when we understand we will be able to control it

Rene Descartes

• • • • 1596-1650 Question old methods- doubt everything- “systematic doubt” (I think therefore I am) Separation of mind and matter- Cartesian Dualism they are 2 different things detach and analyze. More deduction, with math serving as the starting truth. Criticized saying he encouraged atheism • “Discourse on Method”- man should depend on logic alone. Start with clear (math facts), subdivide problem into as many parts as necessary until you can solve them

Science and Religion

• • • Universities were still most commonly run by RC church. Condemnation of Galileo etc… gave perception of church as “anti- science”- but it was really Reformation, if someone questions church doctrine they must be squashed before they cause problems. And it did seem against common sense- the earth is moving…..?

Scientists thought of themselves as studying God’s creation, did not question God’s existence. Science/religion won’t really clash until Darwin

Scientific Societies

   By 1650 there were “clubs” being founded for groups of scientists to share/discuss ideas.

England particularly strong in this area. Royal Society of London founded for improvement of natural knowledge 1660.

Nationalism kept countries wanting to be on the cutting edge of knowledge

Consequences of the Scientific Revolution

     Improvements to technology Spirit of experimentation that helped lead to agricultural and Industrial Revolutions Reduces witch hunts and superstition Church reaction moves centers of science into protestant territories (helps them grow more advanced and powerful) Leads the way for the Enlightenment