Transcript PSYCHOLOGY AS - Highcliffe School

STRE
1
The specification
Stress as a bodily
response
The body’s response to stress, including the
pituitary-adrenal system and the sympathomedullary
pathway in outline
Stress-related illness and the immune system
Stress in everyday
life
Life changes and daily hassles
Workplace stress
Personality factors, including Type A behaviour
Distinction between emotion-focused and problemfocused approaches to coping with stress
Psychological and physiological methods of stress
management, including Cognitive Behavioural
Therapy and drugs
2
WHAT IS STRESS?
 What you feel when
there is a lack of fit
between the person
and their environment
(i.e. where the
perceived demands of
a situation are greater
than the perceived
ability to cope).
 The physical sensations
related to activity of
the ANS.
Terminologically challenged
Autonomic
nervous system
Hypothalamus
Corticosteroids
Adrenaline
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone
Supercallifragilisticexpialidocious
The ANS
The central nervous system
The autonomic nervous system
Parasympathetic & Sympathetic
Rest
and
digest
Fight
or
flight
The stress response is adaptive
For our distant ancestors
the stress response was
important to the survival
because it enabled them
to cope with situations of
threat.
It is an essential part of our
survival and future
reproductive success.
Fight or flight response
The body’s response to stress
1. Short term stress
acute
adrenal medulla
2. Long term (continuing)
chronic stress
adrenal cortex
1. Adrenal medulla - SAM system
Immediate (acute) stressors
Arouse the sympathetic
branch of the ANS
Causes the hormone
adrenaline to be released by
the adrenal medulla (in the
adrenal glands).
The ‘fight or flight’ response.
Physiological sensation that
accompanies being scared or
thrilled, i.e. being ‘aroused’.
Sweatiness and increased heart
and breathing rate; stops you
wanting to pee and slows down
digestion, prevents erection and
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ejaculation.
2. Adrenal cortex – HPA axis
If stress continues (chronic)
Hypothalamus produces CRF
(corticotrophin releasing factor)
Stimulates the pituitary gland
which secretes ACTH
(adrenocorticotropic hormone)
The function of cortisol is to
maintain a steady supply of
blood sugar for continued
energy. This enables the body
to cope with the stressor, as
which stimulates the adrenal
distinct from the burst of energy
cortex to produce corticosteroids needed for ‘fight or flight’.
such as cortisol.
Takes about 20 minutes.
Two systems
 Chronic
 HPA
 Fight or flight
H
hypothalamus (sympathetic
nervous
)
C
CRF
P
Pituitary gland
S Sympathetic nervous
system
A
ACTH
A Adrenaline
C
Adrenal cortex
M Adrenal Medulla
C
Cortisol
 SAM
SAM
H
P C
C A C
GENDER BIAS
 Research with males gave us the fight-flight response
 Subsequent research with females found a ‘tend and befriend’
response which would be adaptive for ancestral females
(Taylor et al., 2000).
 tending (attachment behaviour).
 befriending (forming defensive networks of females).
Exam question
You are a passenger in a car that has
suddenly slammed on its brakes to avoid
hitting a dog. Your breathing quickens,
your mouth is dry and you have a feeling
of ‘butterflies’ in your stomach. But after a
few minutes these physical changes start
to disappear. Using your knowledge of the
body’s response to stress, explain why you
are likely to have experienced:
a)The changes that occurred in the first 30
seconds; (2 marks)
b)the changes that occurred after a few
minutes. (2 marks)
Jan 2009
Stress-related illness and the
immune system
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
The immune system is
designed to defend the body
against millions of antigens
(i.e. bacteria, viruses, toxins
and parasites) that would
otherwise overwhelm it.
Cortisol directly suppresses
immune system functioning by
decreasing the production of
lymphocytes.
Stress depresses the immune system
Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) looked at natural
killer (NK) cells in the blood of medical
students taking exams.
✴ Blood samples taken one month before the
exam (low stress) and during the exam
period (high stress).
✴ Questionnaires assessed psychological
variables e.g. life events.
Findings
✴ NK cell activity was significantly reduced in
the second blood sample.
✴ NK cell activity was particularly reduced in
participants reporting other significant life
stressors, and in those who were anxious and
depressed.
Stress depresses the immune system
Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1995) compared female
caring for relatives suffering from senile
dementia with a matched control group.
 All participants were given a wound – a
‘punch biopsy’ which is a cut of 3.5mm just
below the elbow.
 Cytokine levels were monitored –
substances involved in the immune
response.
Findings
 Complete wound healing took significantly
longer in the carers than the controls.
 Cytokine levels were higher.
 Carers indicated on a perceived stress
scale that they were feeling more stressed.
Acute stress may enhance
the immune system
Evans et al. (1994) looked at the
activity of one particular antibody
salivary IgA (sIgA) which coats the
mucous surfaces of the mouth, lungs
and stomach, and helps protect
against infection.
 Arranged for students to give talks to
other students (mild stress).
 These students showed an increase
in sIgA, whereas levels of sIgA
decreased during examination
periods which stretched over several
weeks.
Stress appears to have
two effects on the
immune system: upregulation for very
short-term stress and
down- regulation for
long-term stress. This
fits the SAM/HPA
distinction
Stress and illness
Cardiovascular disorder
Cardiovascular disorders include
 Hypertension (high blood pressure).
 Coronary heart disease (CHD) e.g.
blocked or hardened arteries, causes
reduced blood flow to heart which
may result in heart attack.
 Stroke (brain damage caused by
disruption of blood supply to the
brain).
Stress linked to cardiovascular disorders
because …
SNS activation constricts blood vessels and
raises blood pressure and heart rate.
May wear away lining of blood vessels.
Stress raises glucose levels leading to
clumping in blood vessels which cause
blocking.
STRESS
AND CHD
 Russek (1962) looked at heart disease in medics.
 One group were designated as high stress (GPs and
anaesthetists) while others were classed as low stress
(pathologists and dermatologists).
 Russek found heart disease was greatest among GPs
(11.9% of sample) and lowest in dermatologists (3.2%
of sample).
Stress and illness
Mental illness
Stress linked to mental illness
because …
Stress acts as a trigger.
Diathesis-stress model.
 Melchior et al. (2007) New
Zealand study of 1000
people over 1 year, aged
32, range of occupations.
 15% of those in high stress
jobs developed clinical
depression, compared to 8%
in low stress jobs.
Mariah Carey
Exam
question
Sandy and Vandita play for the same
netball team. Two weeks ago, while
playing in a competition, they both
grazed their elbows. Vandita’s wound is
healing well, but Sandy’s wound is taking
much longer to heal. Sandy is very
worried about the plans for her wedding
and her forthcoming house move.
Using your knowledge of psychology,
explain why Sandy’s wound is taking
longer to heal than Vandita’s. (4 marks)
Jan 2010
The specification
Stress as a bodily
response
The body’s response to stress, including the
pituitary-adrenal system and the sympathomedullary
pathway in outline
Stress-related illness and the immune system
Stress in everyday
life
Life changes and daily hassles
Workplace stress
Personality factors, including Type A behaviour
Distinction between emotion-focused and problemfocused approaches to coping with stress
Psychological and physiological methods of stress
management, including Cognitive Behavioural
Therapy and drugs
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Life changes
 Holmes and Rahe
(1967) SRRS
 Rahe et al. (1970) found
a weak but significant
correlation between
illness and life changes
(LCUs) in 2600 Navy
men.
 The key feature of life
changes is the psychic
cost of change.
• More importantly
it might be lack of
control.
• Also, research is
correlational.
• Retrospective
recall may be
unreliable.
• Negative
response bias.
Any idiot can
handle a
crisis-it’s this
day-to-day
living that
wears you out.
Daily hassles
Anton
Chekhov
 Anita DeLongis et al. (1982) hassles and uplifts
scale.
 DeLongis et al. (1988) found hassles were
related to ill health (not life changes or uplifts).
 Accumulation effect
 e.g. Road rage worse after a bad day at
work (Gulian et al., 1990)
 Amplification effect
 e.g. Ongoing life changes may make an
individual more vulnerable to hassles.
Research suggests
that hassles are a
more significant
determinant of
stress-related illness
than life changes.
One reason may be
that people are
more likely to seek
support for major life
events (Flett et al.,
1995).
EXAM QUESTION
Explain what
psychological research
has shown about the
stressful impact of either
life changes or daily
hassles. (4 marks)
What’s the
catch?
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Workplace stressors
Five years later
 It was not the hard-working
 Sir Michael Marmot
 7000+ civil servants
(Whitehall study).
 Asked about e.g.
workload, sense of
control.
 Measured health
status.
executives most at risk of heart
attacks; it was the people at the
bottom of the hierarchy, which
ran contrary to the thinking of the
time.
 Stress-related illness was found in
those who
Felt least control
Had least social support
Individual differences
Richard Lazarus
proposed the
transactional
model.
There is an
interaction between a
person’s perception
of how well they can
cope and the effects
of stress on that
person.
If you feel in control,
then stress will effect
you less.
Stress and
personality
 3000 Californian men.
Personality assessed
using questionnaire.
TYPE A
TYPE B
Friedman and Rosenman (1959)
WESTERN COLLABORATIVE PROJECT
Type A: competitive, hostile, achievementoriented, impatient.
Increases vulnerability to stress or just
experience more stress.
Type B: patient, relaxed, easy-going.
 8 ½ years later twice as
many Type A’s (12%) had
died of CHD.
 22 years later 15% had
died of CHD but not
especially Type A.
 Myrtek (2001) meta-
analysis showed that
hostility rather than Type A
is the key component.
Kobasa and Maddi (1977)
THE HARDY PERSONALITY
Stress and
personality
See themselves in control.
Have a strong sense of commitment.
See problems as challenges.
 Stress management techniques
emphasise the role of control.
 May not be suitable for everyone
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Describe personality factors that have been
shown to influence the way people respond
to stress. (5 marks)
Jan 2010
Exam
questions
Mr Harris is about to move his business into a
brand new building. He is very keen to
create a healthy working environment and
reduce workplace stress. In this way he
hopes to improve productivity and reduce
absenteeism.
What advice would you give Mr Harris? Use
your knowledge of psychological research in
this area. (6 marks)
Jan 2010
The specification
Stress as a bodily
response
The body’s response to stress, including the
pituitary-adrenal system and the sympathomedullary
pathway in outline
Stress-related illness and the immune system
Stress in everyday
life
Life changes and daily hassles
Workplace stress
Personality factors, including Type A behaviour
Distinction between emotion-focused and problemfocused approaches to coping with stress
Psychological and physiological methods of stress
management, including Cognitive Behavioural
Therapy and drugs
33