5. Applications in Physics
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Transcript 5. Applications in Physics
5. Applications in Physics
A. Thermodynamics
B. Hamiltonian mechanics
C. Electromagnetism
D. Dynamics of a perfect fluid
E. Cosmology
A. Thermodynamics
5.1
5.2
5.3
Simple systems
Maxwell and other mathematical identities
Composite thermodynamic systems: Caratheodory's theorem
5.1.
1-component fluid:
Q PdV dU
Q PdV dU
(1st law)
1-forms on 2-D manifold with coordinates (V,U).
d Q d PdV dU
P
P
dV
dU
dP dV
dV
U V
V U
P
dU dV
U V
Q dQ
Simple Systems
0
(δQ is not exact )
δQ is a 1-form in 2-space → its ideal is closed (see Ex 4.31(b))
Q T dS
Frobenius' theorem (§4.26)
→
2nd law: Q T dS holds for all systems in thermodynamic equilibrium.
5.2. Maxwell and Other Mathematical Identities
T dS PdV dU
Switching to (S,V) gives
T
P
V S
S V
→
Switching to (T,V) gives
→
S P
V T T V
P
1
dV dU
T
T
dT dS dP dV
→
T
dT dS
dV dS
V S
P
dP dV
dS dV
S
V
(Maxwell identity)
S
P
dP
dV
dT dS dT
dV
dT dV
V T
T V
1
P
1
dP dV 2 dT dV 2 dT dU
T
T
T
U
1 P
P
1
Switching to (T,V) gives
0
dT
dV
dT
dV
dT
dV
2
2
T T V
T
T
V T
P
U
→ T
P
T
V
V
T
dS
→
0
T
dT dS
dP dS
P S
T S
dP dT
P S T P
T S P
dS dT
P S T P S T
→
T S P
1
P S T P S T
5.3. Composite Thermodynamic Systems:
Caratheodory's Theorem
Q PdV
i
i dU i
n
i 1
Frobenius’ theorem:
1-forms on 2N-D manifold with coordinates (Vi ,Ui ).
Q T dS
d Q Q 0
n
Pi
dQ Q
dU k dVi Pj dV j dU j
U
i, k 1
j 1
k Vk
n
(See Ex 4.30 )
δQ integrable → equilibrium submanifolds defined by S = constant.
→ Equilibrium states on different submanifolds cannot be bridged adiabatically.
Question: is the converse true?
i.e., Not every state reachable adiabatically → S exisits ?
c.f. 2nd law: Heat can’t be transfer from cold to hot regions in a closed system
without doing work.
Caratheodory: 2nd law → S exisits.
Proof:
If δQ is not integrable, then V, W , s.t. in the neighborhod of P,
Q V Q W 0
but
Q V , W 0
i.e., the subspace KP of vector fields that annul δQ do not form a hypersurface.
e.g.,
x i e W e V e W e V x i
P
1
1
1 W 2W 2 1 V 2V 2
2
2
1
1
1 W 2W 2 1 V 2V 2 x i
2
2
1 2 W ,V O 3 xi
P
P
δQ is not integrable → Any states near P can be reached adiabatically.
Not all states near P can be reached adiabatically → δQ is integrable
B. Hamiltonian Mechanics
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Hamiltonian Vector Fields
Canonical Transformation
Map between Vectors & 1-forms Provided by ω
Poisson Bracket
Many Particle System: Symplectic Forms
Linear Dynamical Systems: Symplectic Inner Product &
Conserved Quantities
10. Fibre Bundle Structure of the Hamiltonian Equations
See Frankel
5.4. Hamiltonian Vector Fields
Lagrangian:
Momenta:
L q, q L q , q
i
ppi
L
qi
i
d
q
t
i
q
dt
Hamiltonian:
H pi qi L = H q i , pi
d L L
0
d t qi qi
Euler-Lagrange eq:
Hamilton’s eqs:
i
H
q
pi
i
pi
H
qi
Let M be the manifold with coordinates ( qi ).
Then the set ( qi , qi,t ) is the tangent bundle T(M).
The set ( qi , pi ) can be taken as the cotangent bundle T*(M),
or a symplectic manifold with the Poincare (symplectic) 2-form
dqi dpi
Definition: Symplectic Forms:
A 2-form on M2n is symplectic ( M is then a symplectic manifold ) if
1.
2.
d 0
ω is non-degenerate, i.e., iX ω is non-singular.
Definition: Interior Product:
iv :
s.t.
p p1
by
iv
iv 0
if α is a 0-form
iv v
if α is a 1-form
iv w 2 ,
Properties:
Components:
, w p v, w 2 ,
i a v b w a iv b iw
iv H v j j H
,wp
if α is a p-form
i v iv
H h2
hp
deg
iv
dqi dpi
U
d 0
d
H
H
qi i p i i
dt
q
p
pi qi qi pi
LU d U d V d U
Eq(4.67):
If U is tangent to
system trajectory
i
i
i
U dq dp j q i pi i q ii j dp j pi ji dq j q dpi pi dq
p
q
→
j
H
H
dpi i dqi dH
pi
q
LU ddH 0
U is called a Hamiltonian vector field.
LU H U H
dH
H H H H
0
i
i
i
dt
pi q q p
(Conservative system)
5.5. Canonical Transformation
A coordinate transformation : qi , pi Q j , Pj is canonical if
* dQ j dPj dqi dpi
This can be achieved through a generating function F.
E.g., given F = F(q,Q ) s.t.
pi
F
qi
& Pi
F
Q i
we have
2 F
2 F
2 F
j
k
k
k
dQ dPj dQ k j dQ k j dq k j dQ dq
q Q
q Q
Q Q
j
j
2 F
2 F
2 F
k
k
dqi dQ k
dq dpi dq k i dQ k i dq
k
i
Q q
q q
Q q
i
i
5.6. Map between Vectors & 1-forms Provided by ω
Define
V V iV
or
Vi ji V j
Note difference in order of indices with eq(5.27)
However, ω is not a metric since
V ,V V ,V 0
See Ex 5.3
Ex 5.5: A hamiltonian vector field corresponds to an exact 1-form, i.e.
d
dH dH
dt
5.7. Poisson Bracket
Let
f , g df , dg
dg a j
→
ai
then
j
dq dpi a
bj
q j
p
j
i
g
pi
f , g df , dg
df , dg
b
j
q j
pj
dg dg
bi
g
qi
→
ai dpi bi dqi
dg
g
g
dpi i dqi
pi
q
g
g
p j q j q j p j
f
f
g
g
i
dq
dp
,
i
qi
pi
p j q j q j p j
f g f g
i
q pi pi qi
Note sign difference with eq(5.31),
which can be traced to eq(5.27)
5.8. Many Particle System: Symplectic Forms
Symplectic = German for plaiting together
dqi dpi
Symplectic Form
Phase space = Symplectic manifold
Ex 5.6 8
5.9. Linear Dynamical Systems: Symplectic Inner
Product & Conserved Quantities
Linear system:
H
1 ij
T pi p j Vi j q i q j
2
1
H
Vi j ki q j Vi j qi kj
pk k
2
q
qk
Tij T
ji
1
Vk j q j Vi k q i Vk j q j
2
1
1
kj
H
T i j i k p j T i j pi jk T k j p j T i k pi T p j
2
2
pk
q
,
p
q q , p p
qi1 , pi1
Linearity: if
i
1
&
2
i
2
1
i
2
i
i
are solutions, so is
2
i
Solution sub-manifold is also a vector space.
A manifold that is also a vector space is a flat manifold
(M is isomorphic to Rn )
Vi j V ji
Treating elements of phase space as vectors, we set
Y q1 ,
, q N , p1 ,
, p N qi
p
i
qi
pi
The (anti-symmetric) symplectic inner product is defined as
Y 1 , Y 2 dqi dpi Y 1 , Y 2 qi1 dpi p1i dqi Y2
qi1 p2 i p1 i qi2
The symplectic inner product is time-independent if Y(i) are solution curves.
Proof:
d
d i
Y 1 , Y 2
q1 p2 i p1 i qi2
dt
dt
qi1 p2 i qi1 p2 i p1 i qi2 p1 i qi2
T i j p1 j p2 i qi1 Vi j qj2 Vi j qj1 qi2 p1 i T i j p2 j
0
Reminder:
Y , Y qi pi p i qi 0
For time independent T i j and Vi j , we have
pk Vk j q
qk T k j p j
j
→
→
i.e., if Y qi , pi
d
pk Vk j q j
dt
d k
q T k j pj
dt
is a solution, so is
Define the canonical energy by
dY
qi , pi
dt
1 dY
EC Y
,Y
2 dt
EC is conserved on solution curves.
If Y is a solution, then
EC Y
1 i
1 ij
i
q
p
p
q
T p j pi Vi j q j qi H
i
i
2
2
LUT i j 0 LUVi j
Let U be a vector field on configuration space s.t.
If
Y qi , pi
is a solution, so is
c.f. Ex 5.8
LU Y
The canonical U-momentum is defined by
PU Y LU Y , Y
PU is conserved on solution curves.
For the Klein-Gordon eq.
4-current density =
jμ is conserved:
Setting
we have
j
tt
2 m 2 0
i
i
* *
*
2m
2m
j 0
qi1 x i
p1 i t x i
qi2 * x i
p 2 i t * x i
( DoF = )
3
0
3
*
*
d
x
j
d
x
* ,
t
t
5.10. Fibre Bundle Structure of the Hamiltonian Equations
qi defines a configuration space manifold M.
Evolution of system is a curve qi(t) on M.
Lagrangian L( qi , qi, t ) is a function on the tangent bundle T(M).
L
pi i
is a 1-form field on M, i.e., phase space is a cotangent bundle T*(M)
q , t
Proof:
j'
j'
i
Consider a new set of coordinates Q Q q and new momenta
i
L q ,t
L
i
Pj '
j'
j'
Q , t q , t Q , t
Since qi, t and Q j , t are elements of the (tangent) fibre of T(M), they
transform like contravariant vectors, i.e.,
L i
k
k
j'
P
j ' pi i j '
q , t j' Q , t →
( pi & Pj are 1-forms )
j'
i
q , t
Phase space { qi, pi } is a cotangent bundle T*(M).
H is a function on T*(M).
d qi d pi
The symplectic form
is coordinate free.
Proof:
Q j' Q j' q i
→
dQ j ' j 'i d q i
Pj ' pi i j '
→
d Pj ' i j ' d pi pi i j ' , k d qk
dQ j ' d Pj ' i j ' j ' k d q k d pi pi i j ' , k j ' m d q m d qk
→
i j ' j 'k ki
i j ' , m j 'k i j ' j 'k , m
dQ j ' d Pj ' d q i d pi pi i j ' j ' m , k d q m d qk
where
2 Q j '
m , k d q d q m k d q m d qk 0
q q
j'
m
k
d qi d pi
since
Reminder: System with constraints leads to non-trivial bundles.
2 Q j '
m k 0
q q
QED
C. Electromagnetism
11. Rewriting Maxwell’s Equations Using
Differential Forms
12. Charge & Topology
13. The Vector Potential
14. Plane Waves: A Simple Example
5.11. Rewriting Maxwell’s Equations Using Differential Forms
Maxwell’s equations in vacuum with sources, Gaussian units with c = 1:
B
E
4 J
t
E
E 4
B 0
Faraday 2-form:
F
B
0
t
0
E
F E x
y
Ez
1
F dx dx
2!
→
Ex
Ey
0
Bz
Bz
0
By
Bx
dF
dF
dF 0
Fi 0 F0i Ei
Fi j Fji i jk Bk
1
F , dx dx dx
2!
Ez
B y
Bx
0
3F , dF
F , 0
F 0 i , 0 F 00, i 0
F 0 i , j F i j , 0
1
F0i , j Fi j , 0 F j 0, i Fi 0, j F ji ,0 F0 j , i
3!
1
Ei , j i j k Bk ,0 E j ,i Ei , j ji k Bk ,0 E j ,i
3!
1
Ei , j i j k Bk ,0 E j ,i
3
1
B
i j k E
3
t k
Fi j , k
1
Fi j , k Fj k ,i Fk i , j Fji ,k Fk j ,i Fi k , j
3!
1
Fi j , k F j k ,i Fk i , j
3
dF 0
i,j,k cyclic.
1
i j l Bl ,k j k l Bl ,i k i l Bl , j 1 B
3
3
corresponds to the homogeneous eqs.
0
E
F F E x
y
Ez
F
F
0
i
,
F
,
F
0i
,i
ij
,j
E i ,i
F
i0
,0
Ex
Ey
0
Bz
Bz
0
By
Bx
Ez
B y
Bx
0
F i 0 F 0i Ei
F i j F ji i jk Bk
0
E 4 4 J
E
4 J i 4 J i
i jk Bk , j Ei ,0 B
t i
Inhomogeneous eqs:
Metric volume form =
F , 4 J
det dt dx dy dz
åF
1
F
2!
åF
11
F
dx
dx
2! 2!
→
å F
1
F
2!
dt dx dy dz
å F
1
0 i F
2!
1
1
k k i l k l i k Bl 3Bi Bi Bi
2!
2!
å F i j
1
1
i j F 0 k i j F 0 k k 0 i j F k 0
2!
2!
0i
0
B
x
åF
By
Bz
d å F dF
dåF
i j0
d å F
Bx
By
0
Ez
Ez
0
Ey
Ex
1
jk 0 i F jk
2!
Bz
E y
Ex
0
E B , B E
B
i jk E
t k
i jk
B
E B, B E
F
1
i jk F jk
2!
1
i j k j k l Bl
2!
0 k i j F 0 k k i j Ek i j k Ek
E B , B E
d å F
E B , B E
E
dåF
3F ,
E B , B E
E
i j k B
t
k
i,j,k cyclic.
J J
å J
i j0
å J
i jk
, J
å J J
å J J
k
i j 0 J
0 k i j J k k i j J k
ki j0 J
0
i j k J
0i j k J
i jk J0
Inhomogeneous eqs are given by
Magnetic monopole:
dF 4 å J m
d å F 4 å J
Alternative Approach
F Ei dx i dt
See §7.2, Frankel
§4.6, Flanders
1
i j k Bk dx i dx j
2!
E x dx E y dy E z dz dt Bx dy dz B y dz dx Bz dx dy
d dx
x
d dt
t
dF Ei , j dx j dx i dt
d dx i
xi
1
1
i j k Bk ,l dx k dx i dx j i j k Bk ,t dt dx i dx j
2!
2!
1
1
E j , i Ei , j i j k Bk ,t dt dx i dx j i j k B dx k dx i dx j
2!
3!
*
dt dx dy dz
1
i
p! 1
ip
i1 i p
dt dx dy dz
*
dt dx dy dz
dx dt
i
*
dx dx dx dt
dx dt
dt dx dt dt
i
i
i
i
dt dx dy dz dx dt * dx dt
i
* dx i dt
→
→
0
0 1
1
* dx dt dy dz
1
i j k dx j dx k
2!
dt dx dy dz dx dy * dx dy
1
* dx dy dt dz
* dx i dx j i j k dx k dt
1
i j k Bk dx i dx j
2!
1
1
*F i j k Ei dx j dx k i j k Bk i j l dx l dt
2!
2!
F Ei dx i dt
where
1
i j k Ei dx j dx k Bl dx l dt
2!
i j k Bk i j l j j k l j l k j Bk 2 Bl
*F
1
i j k Ei dx j dx k Bl dx l dt
2!
d *F
1
i j k Ei , l dx l Ei ,t dt dx j dx k Bi , j dx j dx i dt
2!
1
1
i j k Ei , l dx l dx j dx k i j k Ei ,t Bk , j dt dx j dx k
2!
2!
1
1
E i j k dx i dx j dx k i j k Ei ,t i l m Bl , m dt dx j dx k
3!
2!
J dt J i dxi
dt dx dy dz dt *dt
→
*dt dx dy dz
dt dx dy dz dx *dx
→
*dx dt dy dz
*dx i
1
i j k dt dx j dx k
2!
*J dx dy dz
1
J i i j k dt dx j dx k
2!
Inhomogeneous eqs are given by
d * F 4 * J
Ex 5.14
12. Charge & Topology
Charge = Topology
1. Wheeler: Wormhole (handle) → Pair of charges.
Objections:
a. Origin of wormhole unknown.
b. Linkage of distant pair of charge unacceptable.
2. Sorkin: Wormhole creating pair of nearby charges of same sign.
5.13. The Vector Potential
dF 0
←
F dA
A Vector potential
F is invariant under a gauge transformation: A A A d f
F F dA dA F
A cannot be defined in region with magnetic monopole.
Ex 5.16
5.14. Plane Waves: A Simple Example
Let
F F u
→
ut x
1 d F
1
dF d F u dx dx
dt dx dx dx
2 du
2
d F
1 d Fi j
i
j
dt dx dx
dx dx dx
2 du
du
dF12
dF
dF
dt dx dy 23 dt dy dz 13 dt dx dz
du
du
du
dF02
dF
dF
dx dt dy 03 dx dt dz 23 dx dy dz
du
du
du
dBz dE y
dBx
dt
dx
dy
dt dy dz
du
du
du
dF 0
→
dBy dEz
dBx
dt
dx
dz
dx dy dz
du
du
du
By Ez
Bx 0
Bz Ey
Static fields
ignored
D. Dynamics of a Perfect Fluid
15.
16.
17.
18.
Role of Lie Derivatives
The Comoving Time-Derivative
Equation of Motion
Conservation of Vorticity
5.15. Role of Lie Derivatives
Perfect fluid:
• No viscosity.
• No heat conduction (adiabatic).
Quantities conserved in any fluid element ( local conservation laws ) :
• Mass.
• Entropy.
• Vorticity.
Conservation laws are more transparent within the framework of Lie derivatives.
5.16. The Comoving Time-Derivative
Equation of continuity:
L
0
t
V
div V 0
t
where τ is the volume 3-form:
t
LV
dx dy dz
= time-derivative operator in a frame travelling with the fluid element.
Proof :
Let ( x, y, z, t ) be the coordinates of a fluid particle in the
Galilean space-time.
The tangent U to the “world-line” of the fluid particle is
d x d y d z dt
U
,
,
,
d
t
d
t
d
t
d
t
V x , V y , V z , 1
( parameter of
world-line = t )
The time-derivative operator in a frame travelling with the fluid element is U.
L U W U , W V i i t , W
V , W t , W
t W i i
W
L V W L t W
t , W t W W t t W
t W i i
i = x, y, z.
t W t t t W i i
if W is purely spatial, i.e., W t = 0
L U W t LV W
t W
if W is purely spatial
This holds if W is replaced by any purely spatial (n0) tensor.
Reminder: The Galilean space-time is a fibre bundle with t as base.
Ex 5.19
5.17. Equation of Motion
Adiabatic flow: specific entropy S conserved →
t LV S 0
Euler’s equation of motion ( see Landau & Lifshitz, “Fluid Mechanics”, §2 ) :
v
1
v v p
t
( p = pressure,
Φ = gravitational potential )
In Cartesian coordinates:
i
1
V V j jV i i p i
t
Equation valid only in Cartesian coordinates because :
• Index mismatch (allowable only in orthonormal bases).
• j V i is a tensor only for transformations with coordinate independent Λi’j .
i
1
V V j jV i i p i
t
is not a tensor equation in general coordinates.
Usual remedy is to introduce a covariant derivative (see Chap 6).
An alternative approach via Lie derivative is as follows.
Index mismatch can be resolved using V i = Vi for Cartesian coordinates :
1
Vi V j jVi i p i
t
Non-tensorial transformation behavior is resolved using
L V V V V
j
V
i
j
i
j
iV
j
V j j Vi
( d involves only spatial derivatives )
→
1
1
i V j V j V j j Vi dV 2
2
2
1
1 2
L
V
dp
d
V
V
2
t
i
V 2 V jV j V V
v
1
v v p
t
v ( v ) v v
1 2
v
2
v
1
1
v v p v 2
t
2
1
1 2
L
V
dp
d
V
V
2
t
5.18. Conservation of Vorticity
Vorticity V
~ dV
1
1 2
L
V
dp
d
V
V
2
t
( d involves only spatial derivatives )
Since , d 0 L V , d
t
d both sides →
1
L V dV 2 d dp
t
Case I : p = p(ρ )
→
d dp d
dp
d 0
d
L
dV 0
t
V
( Helmholtz circulation theorem )
Case II : p = p(ρ, S )
p
p
dp
d
S dS
S
Since
L
S 0
t
V
d S both sides of
dS d dp 0
L
dS 0
V
t
→
1
L
dV
d dp
2
V
t
dS LV dV 0
t
LV dS dV
t
gives
( Ertel’s Theorem )
Since any two 3-forms are proportional in our 3-D space, we can write
α = some scalar function, τ = volume 3-form
dS dV
*
→
* dS dV
LV 0
t
L
0
L
V
V
t
t
Ex 5.21 :
Ex.5.22
1
1
L
0
V
t
→
S V
S , i i j k j Vk
1
i j k S , i Vk , j
E. Cosmology
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
The Cosmological Principle
Lie Algebra of Maximal Symmetry
The Metric of a Spherically Symmetric 3-Space
Construction of the Killing Vectors
Open, Closed, & Flat Universes
5.19. The Cosmological Principle
General relativity → Cosmology
Assuming universe to be homogeneous & isotropic in the large scale,
D.G. → only 3 cosmology models (different initial metrics) are possible:
Flat,
Open,
Closed.
This result can be derived without using general relativity or Riemannian geometry.
Mass distribution of the universe:
• Small scale [ 1015 m (nuclear) ~ 1017 m (interstellar) ] : lumpy.
• Star cluster = Galaxy : lumpy
• Cluster of galaxies ( 101 – 103 galaxies ) : lumpy
• Cluster of galaxy clusters = Supercluster : lumpy
• Beyond superclusters : homogeneous & isotropic
Since the universe is evolving, the “observed”
homogeneity is an interpolation to the “present time”.
Spacetime is thus treated as a foliation with leaves of
constant time hypersurfaces.
A hypersurface is space-like is g is positive-definite
on all vectors tangent to it.
Definition of homogeneity
Let G be the isometry Lie group of manifold S with metric tensor field g.
The Lie algebra G of G is that of the Killing vector fields of g.
Elements of G are diffeomorphisms of S onto itself.
The action of G on S is transitive if P, Q S, gG s.t. g(P) = Q.
A manifold S is homogeneous if its isometry group acts transitively on it,
i.e., the geometry is the same everywhere on S.
Elements of G which leaves a point P on S fixed form a subgroup HP of G.
HP is called the isotropy group of P.
The isotropy group HP of P maps any curve through P to another curve through it.
H P : TP → TP
(c.f. adjoint representation of a Lie group)
A manifold S is isotropic about P if its HP = SO(m).
If S is isotropic about all P, it is isotropic.
A cosmology model M is a homogeneous cosmology if it has a foliation of
homogeneous space-like hypersurfaces.
Similarly for isotropic cosmology.
The universe is observed to be homogeneous on the large scale about us.
Cosomological principle: likewise for all observers in the universe.
Ex 5.23
5.20. Lie Algebra of Maximal Symmetry
Let S be a 3-D manifold & ξ a Killing vector field on it, i.e.,
L g
ij
k g i j, k k , i g k j k , j g i k 0
k , i g k j g k mm , i gk j g k m , i m g k m m , i g k j
gk j g k m gk j , i g k m m g m j m , i
,i
g m j m g k j , i g k m m
,i
→
L g
ij
gk j g k m , i m g m j m , i
g m j , i g k j , i g k m m g m j m , i
j , i gk j , i g k m m
g k mm g i j , k j , i gk j , i g k m m i , j gk i , j g k m m
j , i i , j m g k m g i j , k g k j , i g k i , j
j , i i , j 2 m Gimj 0
where
Gimj
1 km
g g k j , i g k i , j g i j , k = Christoffel symbol
2
j , i i , j 2 m Gimj 0 is symmetric in i & j → ½ n(n+1) eqs for n variables ξj .
ξ is over-determined for n > 1.
→ A general g may have no Killing vector fields.
Task: Find criteria for g to have the maximal set of Killing vectors.
k eq. gives
j , ik i , jk 2 m , k Gimj 2 m Gimj , k 0
(1)
i → j → k →i :
k , ji j , ki 2 m , i G mjk 2 m G mjk , i 0
(2)
i , k j k , i j 2 m , j Gkim 2 m Gkim , j 0
(3)
(1)+(3)(2) :
i , j k m , k Gimj m , i G mj k m , j Gkmi m Gimj , k G mj k , i Gkmi , j
K i jk mlm , l H i jk m m
where
K i jk ml Gimj kl G mj k i l Gkmi jl
H i jk m Gimj , k G mj k , i Gkmi , j
i j , k K i jk mlm , l H i jk m m
For a given g, if ξi and ξi , j at point P are known,
then all higher derivatives of ξ at P are known.
→ ξ is known in any neighborhood of P where ξ is analytic.
Given ξi , the symmetric part of ξi , j is given by
1
j , i i , j m Gimj
2
Hence, a Killing vector field on S is determined given some appropriate values
i i P
Ai j i , j P
at a single point P S.
Number of independent choices of ηi is n.
That of Ai j is ½ n(n1).
→ Maximal number of Killing vector fields is ½ n(n+1).
In which case, M is maximally symmetric.
A maximally symmetric connected manifold is homogeneous.
Proof :
S is maximally symmetric →
a Killing field whose tangent at P = any desired value.
The 1-par Lie group associated with the Killing field
maps P to any point Q in some coord patch U of P.
By extending the map across different coord patches, P can be
mapped to any Q in S.
Thus, the isometry group G maps P to any Q in S.
→ G acts transitively on S (S is homogeneous ).
Let G be the isotropy group of P.
→ P is fixed under any action of G.
→ The Killing fields associated with G vanish at P.
i
V , W V i , j W j W i , j V j
V , W i gi k V k , j W j W k , j V j
gik V k gik , j V k
,j
W j g W k g W k
ik , j
ik
,j
V j
Vi , j W j Wi , j V j gi k , j V kW j W kV j
If V and W are any 2 Killing fields of G, then [V , W] = 0 at P.
Hence, the Lie algebra of G is a subalgebra of that of the isometry group.
Ex.5.24: The isotropy group of a space-like S is SO(m).
I.e., a maximally symmetric space-like manifold is isotropic.
5.21. The Metric of a Spherically Symmetric 3-Space
Let S be a space-like 3-manifold.
If the isotropy group of S is SO(3), then S is spherically symmetric everywhere.
The Killing vectors of SO(3) define spheres S2 by their integral curves.
→ they foliate S.
Spherical coordinates: r labels different leaves; (θ, φ) = coord on each leaf.
Metric of S induces metric on each S2 → volume 2-form & its integral (total area).
Intrinsic definition of r :
area 4 r 2
→
r
area
4
Caution: r defined this way need not be monotonically increasing everywhere.
E.g., 2-manifold S2 (leaves are circles) :
r 1st increases, then decreases when moving
away from P towards P.
At every point Q on a leaf S2, a unit normal vector n s.t.
g n ,V 0
g n, n 1
V TQ S 2
( n is orthogonal to S2 )
( n is normalized )
The unit normal vector field is C everywhere except at the poles where θ= 0 or π.
The poles (θ= 0 ) on different spheres can be related by demanding that they lie on
the integral curve of n through the pole of an arbitrarily chosen sphere.
Example: 2-manifold S2
n is orthogonal to the leaves S1.
Poles (φ = 0 ) on different leaves lie on
integral curve of n.
θ & φ are constant on any integral curve of the unit normal vector field.
→ Integral curves of n are coordinate lines of r.
Since θ & φ are tangent to S2 :
g r g r , 0
g r g r , 0
area 4 r 2
i.e.,
→
g r 2
f r
g
r2
0
g 0
g r 2 sin2
2
2
r sin
0
where f(r) is to be determined by the rest of the isometries of S.
Ex 5.25
5.22. Construction of the Killing Vectors
Any vector field on S can be written as
V l m r Yl m r l m r Ylm l m r Ylm
sum over repeated
indices implied
where (see §4.29)
ij
kn
Y lm å dY l m g jk g Yl m , n
Ylm Yl m g i j Yl m , j
With
g i j diag 1 , sin 2
g d d sin d d
i j i j sin
we have
Ylm g j Yl m , j Yl m ,
Ylm g j Yl m , j
Ylm g g Yl m ,
Y
lm
g g Y l m ,
1
Yl m ,
sin 2
1
1
Y
Yl m ,
lm ,
sin 2
sin
1
1
sin
Y
Yl m ,
lm ,
sin 2
sin
sin
V l m r Yl m r l m r Ylm l m r Ylm
1
l m r Y l m r l m r Y l m , 2 Y l m ,
sin
1
1
lm r
Y l m ,
Y l m ,
sin
sin
V l m r Y l m, l m r
V l m r Yl m
r
V lm r
1
Y l m,
sin
1
1
Y
r
Yl m,
l m,
lm
2
sin
sin
1
1
1
V l m r Y l m r l m r Y l m, l m r
Y l m , l m r 2 Y l m , l m r
Y l m,
sin
sin
sin
If V is to be a Killing vector, it components must satisfy the Killing eq
i.e.,
K i j V k g i j , k V k , i g k j V k , j g ik 0
where g is the 3-D metric tensor
g i j diag f r , r 2 , r 2 sin 2
LV g 0
K i j V k g i j , k V k , i g k j V k , j g ik 0
→
K ij g i m V k g m j , k g i m V k , m g k j g i m V k , j g mk 0
g diagonal →
K ji ji g i i V k g ii , k g ii V j , i g j j V i , j 0
K g V k g , k g V , g V ,
( no summation on i & j )
g V k g , k 2V ,
Yl m ,
1 r
2 V 2r 2 l m r Y l m, l m r
r
sin
,
1
Y l m , Y l m ,
2 l m r Y l m l m r Y l m , l m r
2 cos
sin sin
r
K g V k g , k 2V ,
Yl m ,
Yl m ,
1
r
2
2
2 2 V 2r sin V 2r sin cos 2 l m r 2 l m r
r sin
sin
sin
Y
Y
2
V r 2cot V 2 l m r l m 2, l m r l m ,
r
sin
sin
Y
Y
2
K V r 2cot V 2 l m r l m 2, l m r l m ,
r
sin
sin
Y
Y
Y
1
2 l m r Y l m l m r cot Y l m , l m 2, l m r cot l m , l m ,
sin
sin sin
r
Y
1
Y
K 2 l m r Y l m l m r Y l m, l m r l m , l m2, cos
sin sin
r
Yl m ,
2
K K 2 l m r Y l m l m r Y l m , cot Y l m , 2
sin
r
Y l m , cot Y l m ,
→
Yl m
1
2
sin
sin sin
Yl m ,
2
1 Yl m
2
2
sin
4
K K l m r Y l m 2 l m r L2 Y l m 0
r
2
l m r l m r l l 1 0
r
L2 Yl m
Y
Y
Y
1
K 2 l m r Y l m l m r cot Y l m , l m 2, l m r cot l m , l m ,
sin
sin sin
r
1
Y l m , Y l m ,
K 2 l m r Y l m l m r Y l m, l m r
2 cos
sin sin
r
Yl m ,
Yl m ,
Yl m ,
1
K
K
r
Y
cot
Y
2
r
cot
l m l m ,
lm ,
lm
2
2
sin
sin
sin
1
K K l m r Fl m l m r Gl m
2
where
Fl m Y l m , cot Y l m ,
Yl m ,
sin 2
Y
Y
Gl m 2 l m , cot l m ,
sin
sin
K i j V k g i j , k V k , i g k j V k , j g ik 0
K V , g V , g
Yl m ,
Yl m , 2
r sin l m r 2 l m r
r
sin ,
sin ,
2
2
Y l m ,
l m r Y l m , l m r
sin
Yl m ,
Y l m , Y l m ,
2Y l m ,
Yl m ,
r sin l m r
2cos 3 l m r
cos 2 3
2
sin
sin sin
sin
sin
2
2
Fl m Y l m , cot Y l m ,
sin 2
K r 2 sin l m r Gl m l m r Fl m
l m r Gl m l m r Fl m 0
Non-trivial solutions requires
Yl m ,
Yl m ,
Gl m 2
cot
sin
sin
Yl m ,
l m r Fl m l m r Gl m 0
Fl m
det
Gl m
Gl m
0 Fl m
Fl m
G
2
2
lm
0 Fl m Gl m
2
2
Fl m Y l m , cot Y l m ,
→
Yl m ,
sin
2
0
Yl m ,
Yl m ,
Gl m 2
cot
0
sin
sin
0 Yl m , cot Yl m ,
G:
→
F:
m0
i m Yl m , cot Yl m
Yl m , cot Yl m ,
or
Y l m , cot Y l m , m
If m 0, then
If m = 0, then
Y00 1
&
m2 1
Yl m
2
sin 2
i.e.,
Yl 0 , cot Yl 0 ,
Y10
1
Yl m
2
sin
m 1
, which can only be satisfied by
3
cos
4
Hence, the only solutions are l = 0, or 1.
1
1
1
V l m r Y l m r l m r Y l m, l m r
Y l m , l m r 2 Y l m , l m r
Y l m,
sin
sin
sin
2
l m r l m r l l 1 0
r
For l = 0 :
00 r 0
→
V 00 r r 0
For l 2 :
l m l m 0
→
For l = 1:
2
1m r 2 1m r 0
r
l m 0
→
&
V 0
1m r r1m r
1
1
1
V r 1m r Y1m r 1m r Y1m, 1m r
Y1m, 1m r 2 Y1m, 1m r
Y1m,
sin
sin
sin
η1m & ζ1m are determined by the rest of the Killing eqs, i.e.,
Krr = 0
K rθ = 0
Krφ = 0
1
1
1
V l m r Y l m r l m r Y l m, l m r
Y l m , l m r 2 Y l m , l m r
Y l m,
sin
sin
sin
K i j V k g i j , k V k , i g k j V k , j g ik 0
K rr V r g rr , r 2V r, r g rr l m Yl m f, r 2l m , r Yl m f 0
l m f, r 2 l m , r f 0
→
The divergence (see §4.16) of a vector is given by
For a vector on S2,
d * a d ji a j dx i
sin d d
ji a j
,k
dx k dx i
a a d d
,
,
d å a d * a a
so that
j a j j a j
,
,
d d
sin a sin a d d
,
,
Treating K = (K rθ , K rφ ) as a 1-form on S2, we have
d * K sin Kr sin Kr d d
,
,
1
K
sin K r sin K r
,
,
sin
1
1
1
V l m r Y l m r l m r Y l m, l m r
Y l m , l m r 2 Y l m , l m r
Y l m,
sin
sin
sin
Kr Kr 0
sin K
→
r
,
sin K r
,
0
K ji ji g i i V k g ii , k g ii V j , i g j j V i , j
→
Kr g
V
r
,
g rr V
,r
1
1
Y
f
Y
Yl m,
l m , r l m,
lm , r
2 l m l m,
r
sin
1
f sin Yl m , , l m , r sin Y l m , , l m , rY l m ,
2 lm
,
r
1
1
1
r
Y
f
Y
Yl m,
Kr g V , g rr V , r
lm
l m,
lm , r
l m,
lm , r
2
2
2
r sin
sin
sin
sin Kr
sin K
r
sin K
r
,
,
1
1
Y
f
Y l m , l m , rY l m ,
lm
l m ,
lm , r
r 2 sin
sin
sin Kr
,
1
1
2 l m f l m , r sin Y l m,
Yl m ,
,
sin
r
1
2 l m f l m , r sin L2Yl m 0
r
1
f
→
l m , r sin l l 1 Yl m 0
2 lm
r
dK d K r d K r d
→
→
→
Kr , Kr , 0
1
1
Y
f
Y
Y l m,
l m , r l m,
lm , r
2 l m l m,
r
sin
K r g Kr r Kr
2
l m Yl m , f r 2 l m , rY l m , r 2 l m , r
K r , l m Yl m , f r 2 l m , r Y l m , r 2 l m , r
K r
l>0
Kr , d d Kr , d d
K r , K r , d d 0
K r
1
f l m , r 0
2 lm
r
1
Y l m,
sin
1
Y l m ,
sin
1
1
1
Y
f
Y
Y l m,
lm
l m,
lm , r
l m,
lm , r
2
2
2
r sin
sin
sin
K r g Kr r2 sin2 Kr l m Yl m, f r2l m , rYl m, r2 sin l m , rYl m,
Kr , l m Y l m, f r 2 l m , r Y l m , r 2 l m , r sin Y l m ,
K r , K r ,
,
2
1
r2
sin
L
Yl m 0
r l m , r sin Y l m ,
Ylm ,
lm, r
,
sin
2
r 2 l m , r sin l l 1 Yl m 0
→
lm, r 0
l m const
l>0
Summary: For a non-trivial solution, l = 1 and
2
l m r l m r l l 1 0
r
1
f l m , r 0
2 lm
r
→
→
1m r 1m
1
f 1m , r 0
2 1m
r
1m f r 1m , r 0
l m f, r 2 l m , r f 0
→
r 1m f , r 2 1m r 1m , r f 0
1m r f , r 2 1 f f
df
dr
2
r
f 1 f
→
f
→
1
1 C r2
f 1
ln
2ln r ln C
f
→
f 1
C r2
f
f
1
1 C r2
1m f r 1m , r 0
→
d1m
1m
1 Cr 2 1
ln1m ln
ln Vm
2
2 r
Cr 2 1
1m
Vm
r
dr
f
r
dr
r Cr 2 1
Vm = const
1m r 1m Vm Cr 2 1
5.23. Open, Closed, & Flat Universes
Robertson-Walker model :
(homogeneous, isotropic 3-space)
See I.D.Lawrie, “A Unified Grand Tour
of Theoretical Physics”, 2nd ed., Chap 14.
1
2
2
2
2
2
d 2 dt 2 a 2 t
dr
r
d
sin
d
2
1
C
r
1
2
2
2
2
2
i.e., g diag 1 , a 2 t
,
a
t
r
,
a
t
r
sin
2
1
C
r
t = proper time. Obervers with fixed r, θ & φ (comoving) are in free fall.
r
If C 0, then
r
C
a t a t
C
1
2
2
2
2
2
d dt a t
dr
r
d
sin
d
2
1
k
r
2
2
2
gives
where
k
C
1
C
Case C = 0 is the same as k = 0 with
d 2 dt 2 a 2 t dr 2 r 2 d 2 sin 2 d 2
[ Spatial section is
Euclidean (flat) ]
Surface of fixed r coordinate is a sphere with physical radius
r
dr
r, t a t
1 k r
0
2
a t sin 1 r
a t r
for
a t sinh 1 r
k 1
k 0
k 1
Circumference of the equator ( θ = π/2 ) of the sphere is
c r, t a t
2
r d
2 ra t
0
r
2
2
1
sin r
2
for
2 a sinh 2
a
Hubble’s law:
a t
H t
a t
k 1
Closed
k 0
Flat
k 1
Open
velocity between galaxies
distance between galaxies
0r<1