ECE-6612 http://www.csc.gatech.edu/copeland/jac/6612/ Prof. John A. Copeland [email protected]

404 894-5177 fax 404 894-0035 Office: Klaus 3362 email or call for office visit Chapter 4b - X.509 Authentication

(versus “ standard ” X.509 Authentication Service • An International Telecommunications Union (ITU) recommendation ) for allowing computer host or users to securely identify themselves over a network.

• An X.509 certificate purchased from a “ Certificate Authority screen closes to indicate transmissions are encrypted).

” (trusted third party) allows a merchant to give you his public key in a way that your Browser can generate a session key for a transaction, and securely send that to the merchant for use during the transaction (padlock icon on • Once a session key is established, no one can change the order and delivery address).

“ high jack ” the session (for example, after your enter your credit card information, an intruder can not • User only needs a Browser that can encrypt/decrypt with the appropriate algorithm, and generate session keys from truly random numbers.

• Merchant ’ s Certificate is available to the public, only the secret key must be protected. Certificates can be cancelled if secret key is compromised.

Raw “ Certificate ” has user name, public key, expiration date, ...

Raw Cert.

Generate hash code of Raw Certificate MIC CA ’ s Secure Area Hash Encrypt hash code with CA ’ s private key to form CA ’ s signature Signed Cert.

Signed Certificate Recipient can verify signature using CA ’ s public key.

Certificate Authority generates the “ signature “ ” that is added to raw Certificate ” 3

4

Information Provided by Browser about a Certificate This Certificate belongs to: investing.schwab.com

trading subnet a 1199 Charles Schwab & Co., Inc.

Phoenix, Arizona, US This Certificate was issued by Secure Server Certification Authority RSA Data Security, Inc.

US Serial Number: 6B:68:2F:3B:FD:8A:46:73:04:33:10:8A:32:1E:47:5B This Certificate is valid from Wed Nov 03, 1999 to Thu Nov 02, 2000 Certificate Fingerprint: 4B:80:C6:C5:2D:63:14:E7:6F:50:BD:16:39:3C:96:FD 5

Certificates Can Be Deleted (and Added) Are you sure that you want to delete this Site Certificate?

This Certificate belongs to: endor.mcom.com

Netscape Communications Corp.

US This Certificate was issued by: rootca.netscape.com

Information Systems Netscape Communications Corporation US Serial Number: 01:77 This Certificate is valid from Thu May 15, 1997 to Tue Nov 11, 1997 Certificate Fingerprint: 06:BF:60:88:D9:E7:59:BF:3A:35:74:33:28:8E:26:F6 6

X.509 Chain of Authentication CA<> = CA {A ’ s id and information} X<> = certificate of A “ signed ” by X To authenticate X<>, you must get the public key of X from a trusted source, such as Z - your own CA. ( Z<>) Z in turn may have to get X ’ s certificate from a higher level CA.

Ultimately there must be an “ Authentication Tree issuer of the certificate in question, X.

” of CA ’ s so that a user can work up the tree (from Z) and back down to the 7

In practice, there is no single top-level Certificate Authority (CA), only a group of CA program. ’ s that each Browser vendor deems fit to include in the installation X.509 Chain of Authentication 8

“ Root ” Certificate Authorities in Firefox (2010) added by user 9

Security Issues with X.509 Certificates In 2005, Arjen Lenstra and Benne de Weger demonstrated "how to use hash collisions to construct two X.509 certificates that contain identical signatures and that differ only in the public keys", achieved using a collision attack on the MD5 hash function.

In 2008, Alexander Sotirov and Marc Stevens presented at the Chaos Communication Congress a practical attack that allowed them to create a rogue Certificate Authority, accepted by all common browsers, by exploiting the fact that RapidSSL was still issuing X.509 certificates based on MD5.

X.509 certificates based on SHA-1 had been deemed to be secure up until very recent times. In April 2009 at the Eurocrypt Conference, Australian Researchers of Macquarie University presented "Automatic Differential Path Searching for SHA-1". The researchers were able to deduce a method which increases the likelihood of a collision by several orders of magnitude.

In 2011, SHA-2 hashes 256-bits or 512-bits long were recommended by NIST. In Oct. 2012, “Keccak” won the NIST contest and was named SHA-3.

Source: Wikipedia.com article on “ X.509

” , “SHA-3” 10

Safari Browser - Google Safe Browsing Service - 2011 Firefox Browser - OCSP - 2011 11

Google Safe Browsing

is a service provided by Google that provides lists of URLs for web resources that contain malware or phishing content. The Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox web browsers use the lists from the Google Safe Browsing service for checking pages against potential threats. Google also provide a public API for the service.

Google also provides information to Internet Service Providers, by sending e mail alerts to Autonomous System operators regarding threats hosted on their networks.

According to Google, as of June 2012, some 600 million Internet users were using this service, either directly or indirectly.

To use this service copy into your web browser address bar and edit change:

http://www.google.com/safebrowsing/diagnostic?site= mysite.com

the last name needs to be the url of the webpage or site you wish to find out about. {url = unique resource locator} Source: Wikipedia.com article on “ Google Safe Browsing ” 12

Secure Shell (SSH) and Secure Copy (SCP)

SSH allows you to securely open a terminal window on a remote UNIX host. SCP allows you to securely transfer files. Secure FTP (SFTP) has an interactive command-line interface like FTP.

The authentication process and the TCP connection in both cases is encrypted. Authentication is done using the hosts Hellman.

’ RSA Public Keys. Users are authenticated by their host password, or by using their stored public RSA key, which can be generated by the SSH utility ssh-keygen). A session key is generated by Diffie SSH can also be used for secure tunneling of TCP connections and X11 graphical user interface (GUI) connections.

13

Secure SSH Logon without a password

Generate a Public-Private Key Pair on your PC [myPC:~] copeland%

ssh-keygen -t rsa

Generating public/private rsa key pair.

Enter file in which to save the key (/Users/copeland/.ssh/id_rsa):

[ENTER]

Enter passphrase (empty for no passphrase):

[ENTER]

Enter same passphrase again:

[ENTER]

Your identification has been saved in /Users/copeland/.ssh/id_rsa.

Your public key has been saved in /Users/copeland/.ssh/id_rsa.pub

The key fingerprint is: 99:e6:61:f7:76:cb:33:c8:99:e1:2d:96:40:1c:b3:59 [email protected]

The “ key fingerprint ” is a 128-bit secure hash of the public key.

[ENTER] means you should hit the Enter or Return key.

14

scp the Public Key only to ecelinserv1

[myPC:~] copeland%

scp .ssh/id_rsa.pub ecelinsrv1.ece.gatech.edu:.ssh/x

The authenticity of host ’ ecelinserv1.ece.gatech.edu (130.207.232.12)' can't be established.

RSA key fingerprint is 9c:07:e8:1d:6a:fa:fb:5b:40:35:e3:2a:1d:d3:95:76.

Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)?

yes

Warning: Permanently added ’ ecelinsrv1.ece.gatech.edu,130.207.232.12' (RSA) to the list of known hosts.

[email protected]'s password:

#######

id_rsa.pub . . . . . 4kB

== add your .ssh/id_rsa.pub file, now .ssh/x on ecelinserv1, to .ssh/authorized_keys ===

[myPC:~] copeland%

ssh ecelinsrv1.ece.gatech.edu

password:

#######

Last login: Fri Feb 10 15:06:47 2009 from myPC.ece.gatech.edu

copeland@ecelinsrv1%

cat .ssh/x >> .ssh/authorized_keys

== in the future, no password will be needed ==

If your username is not the same on both hosts, you have to replace host with : username@host in ssh and scp commands (see “ man ssh ” & “ scp ” ).

15

Files in the /usr/home/copeland/.ssh/ directory

copeland@ecelinsrv1%

ls -l .ssh

total 32 -rw-r--r-- 1 copeland users 3284 Dec 2 21:22 authorized_keys -rw------- 1 copeland users 887 Feb 12 2006 id_rsa -rw-r--r-- 1 copeland users 242 Feb 12 2006 id_rsa.pub

-rw-r--r-- 1 copeland users 5964 Oct 27 08:21 known_hosts -rw-r--r-- 1 copeland users 396 Feb 3 10:28 x The files in the “ hidden ” .ssh directory contain the following: “ authorized_keys ” “ id_rsa ” - RSA public keys from your other computers, - the RSA Private Key for this host-user (do not copy), “ id_rsa.pub

” - the RSA Public Key for this host-user (put on other computers, in their “ authorized_keys ” directories), “ known_hosts ” - the host Public Key from all computers you ssh ’ ed to and from in the past (added when you typed “ yes ” ).

16

Secure Tunneling a TCP Connection

Type [myPC:~]% ssh -N -f 7777: remote_host :3389 remote_host on a single command line. DNS name. To have a remote desktop on windows.gatech.edu, configure “ localhost ” “ remote_host ” can be an IP address or and port 7777 in your Remote Desktop Program (instead of “ windows.gatech.edu

” and port 3389).

You You:Remote TCP x:3389 Firewall that blocks port 3389 windows.gatech.edu

17

Secure Relaying a TCP Connection

[myPC:~]% ssh -N -f -L 8080:relay_host:23456 -R 23456:www.gatech.edu:80 relay_host on a single command line. “ http://localhost:8080 ” “ relay_host ” DNS name. To go to www.gatech.edu, type in your browser.

can be an IP address or Caveat: Different versions on UNIX, ssh, and sshd may require different parameters. The “ Relay Host ” must support normal ssh access, and be configured to permit relaying.

You You:Relay TCP x:22 Firewall that blocks port 80 Relay Host Relay:www TCP y:80 www.gatech.edu

18

Making a DES Key from a Password or Phrase password, n 7-bit ASCII characters (little endian - least significant bit first) flattened bit stream (7 x n bits) fanfold into 56 bits bitwise XOR 64-bit key Every eighth bit is a parity bit 19

Programs Available from www.csc.gatech.edu/copeland/jac/6612/tools/

hextext.c

- allows you to view files in both hex and ascii formats.

char_count.c

- shows the number of different characters in a file, computes the character entropy.

To use, you must first compile them. On a UNIX or LINUX: gcc hextext.c -o hextext ./hextext ./hextext

filename 3000

./hextext

filename 3000

| less (the executable file is “ hextext ” ) for help file and max. bytes see one screen at a time gcc char_count.c -lm -o char_count (note the “ -lm ” for math library) ./char_count

filename

(Windows: install cygwin) If “ gcc ” is not available, try “ cc ” . If you want to look at a text file, “ less ” is better than “ more ” (use “ control-u ” to back up, “ space ” for next page).

20

Output from ‘ hextext ’

Maximum Lines (p_limit) value: 30 Input File is 120317-s100.raw

Byte No. HEX VALUES TEXT 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0: d4c3 b2a1 0200 0400 0000 0000 0000 0000 6400 0000 : ................d...

20: 0100 0000 e544 4838 1ead 0200 4e00 0000 4e00 0000 : .....DH8....N...N...

40: 0000 0000 0800 0300 0000 0000 0001 0080 1935 8da3 : .................5..

60: 0800 4500 0040 0291 0000 3f11 16fc 1858 302f 1858 : ..E..@....?....X0/.X

80: 0142 0400 0035 002c 90c7 061a 0100 0001 0000 0000 : .B...5.,............

100: 0000 0377 7777 0363 7363 0667 6174 6563 6803 6564 : ...www.csc.gatech.ed

120: 7500 0001 0001 e544 4838 21fd 0200 7200 0000 a400 : u......DH8!...r.....

140: 0000 0000 0000 0800 0300 0000 0000 0001 0050 0f00 : .................P..

160: 308c 0800 4500 0096 4acf 4000 fc11 d166 1858 0142 : [email protected]

180: 1858 302f 0035 0400 0082 7a8a 061a 8180 0001 0002 : .X0/.5....z.........

200: 0001 0001 0377 7777 0363 7363 0667 6174 6563 6803 : .....www.csc.gatech.

220: 6564 7500 0001 0001 c00c 0005 0001 0000 a1ce 0010 : edu.................

Lines: 30, hextext.c by John Copeland 12/5/99

21

$ ./char_count char_count.c

Output from ‘ char_count ’

char_count vers 000601 File is char_count.c

No. Char.s to EOF = 7396, No. Lines = 183 ^@ ^A ^B ^C ^D ^E ^F ^G 0 | ^P 0 | ^Q 0 | ^R 0 | ^S 0 | ^T 0 | ^U 0 | ^V 0 | ^W ^H ^I ^J- 247 | ^Z ^K 0 | ^[ ^L 0 | ^X 18 | ^Y 0 | ^\ ^M ^N ^O 0 | ^] 0 | ^^ 0 | ^_ Occurrence of Single Characters 0 | - 3488 | 0 0 | ! 1 | 1 0 | " 75 | 2 0 | # 0 | $ 0 | % 0 | & 0 | ' 9 | 3 0 | 4 32 | 5 1 | 6 18 | 7 0 | ( 0 | ) 0 | * 0 | + 0 | , 0 | - 0 | . 0 | / 116 | 8 116 | 9 232 | : 78 | ; 109 | < 100 | = 51 | > 255 | ? 104 | @ 77 | A 71 | B 25 | C 10 | D 29 | E 43 | F 17 | G 16 | H 4 | I 5 | J 193 | K 35 | L 121 | M 31 | N 0 | O 1 | P 16 | Q 5 | R 16 | S 8 | T 27 | U 13 | V 0 | W 0 | X 27 | Y 0 | Z 1 | [ 22 | \ 5 | ] 29 | ^ 17 | _ 12 | ` 0 | a 14 | b 14 | c 25 | d 8 | e 0 | f 0 | g 0 | h 2 | i 0 | j 104 | k 29 | l 102 | m 4 | n 27 | o 0 | p 202 | q 48 | r 262 | s 95 | t 296 | u 154 | v 78 | w 100 | x 338 | y 13 | z 6 | { 152 | | 123 | } 342 | ~ 213 | • 154 0 316 243 263 108 45 8 31 64 4 24 4 24 0 0 -3488 | " Occurrence of Single Characters - Sorted 75 | F 13 | ` 0 | 80 0 | A0 0 | C0 0 | E0 0

22

Occurrence of Single Characters - Sorted -3488 | " 75 | F 13 | ` 0 | 80 n- 342 | 2 i- 338 | y r- 316 | . 71 | P 64 | 4 51 | # 12 | Q 10 | ^B 9 | ^C 0 | 81 0 | 82 0 | 83 e- 296 | b t- 263 | v c- 262 | 6 /- 255 | < ^J- 247 | % 48 | D 45 | w 43 | U 35 | k 32 | : 8 | $ 8 | ^E 8 | ^F 6 | G 5 | H 0 | 84 0 | 85 0 | 86 0 | 87 0 | 88 s- 243 | x *- 232 | > o- 213 | 5 a- 202 | \ ;- 193 | N p- 154 | _ f- 154 | I l- 152 | E 31 | B 31 | M 29 | | 29 | ^ 29 | z 27 | 9 27 | Y 27 | @ 5 | ^A 5 | J 4 | ^K 4 | ^L 4 | ^M 4 | ^N 2 | ^O 1 | ^P 0 | 89 0 | 8A 0 | 8B 0 | 8C 0 | 8D 0 | 8E 0 | 8F 0 | 90 m- 123 | 3 =- 121 | T (- 116 | { )- 116 | } ,- 109 | L u- 108 | ' 0- 104 | ^I [- 104 | 7 ]- 102 | O h- 100 | 8 -- 100 | C d 95 | A g + 1 78 | R 78 | S 77 | j 25 | & 25 | K 24 | ! 24 | ^H 22 | ^@ 18 | ^V 18 | ^G 17 | ^X 17 | ? 16 | ^Z 16 | ^W 16 | ^D 14 | ^Q 14 | ^^ 13 | ^_ 1 | q 1 | ^R 1 | ^S 0 | ^T 0 | ^U 0 | V 0 | W 0 | X 0 | ^Y 0 | Z 0 | ^[ 0 | ^\ 0 | ^] 0 | ~ 0 | bs 0 | 91 0 | 92 0 | 93 0 | 94 0 | 95 0 | 96 0 | 97 0 | 98 0 | 99 0 | 9A 0 | 9B 0 | 9C 0 | 9D 0 | 9E 0 | 9F 0 | A0 0 | A1 0 | A2 0 | A3 0 | A4 0 | A5 0 | A6 0 | A7 0 | A8 0 | A9 0 | AA 0 | AB 0 | AC 0 | AD 0 | AE 0 | AF 0 | B0 0 | B1 0 | B2 0 | B3 0 | B4 0 | B5 0 | B6 0 | B7 0 | B8 0 | B9 0 | BA 0 | BB 0 | BC 0 | BD 0 | BE 0 | BF 0 | C0 0 | C1 0 | C2 0 | C3 0 | C4 0 | C5 0 | C6 0 | C7 0 | C8 0 | C9 0 | CA 0 | CB 0 | CC 0 | CD 0 | CE 0 | CF 0 | D0 0 | D1 0 | D2 0 | D3 0 | D4 0 | D5 0 | D6 0 | D7 0 | D8 0 | D9 0 | DA 0 | DB 0 | DC 0 | DD 0 | DE 0 | DF Entropy is 4.5 bits/byte. Maximum character-wise compression = 56.5 % No. Char.s > 127 (not ASCII text) = 0, 0 % 0 | E0 0 | E1 0 | E2 0 | E3 0 | E4 0 | E5 0 | E6 0 | E7 0 | E8 0 | E9 0 | EA 0 | EB 0 | EC 0 | ED 0 | EE 0 | EF 0 | F0 0 | F1 0 | F2 0 | F3 0 | F4 0 | F5 0 | F6 0 | F7 0 | F8 0 | F9 0 | FA 0 | FB 0 | FC 0 | FD 0 | FE 0 | FF 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

23