Transcript Document

Chapter 1
The Science of Psychology
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1
Blackboard and Connect
• Go to your
Blackboard
Course
• Click on your
first assignment
• It will take you
to this screen….
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Connect Assignments
• LearnSmart and Other Assignments
• SmartBook
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What is Psychology?
• The Science of behavior and mental processes
• Science
• Behavior
• Mental Processes
• The Profession that applies the information to
solve everyday issues.
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Psychological Frame of Mind
• Psychology is a Science. This means that it
requires skilled thinking. It is based on empirical
evidence.
• Violence in America in the last 10 years has:
• Teen pregnancies in America in the last 10 years have:
a) Decreased
b) Increased
c) Stayed the same
*
*
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• WASHINGTON – Strangers committed about 1.8
million nonfatal violent crimes in 2010, or about 38
percent of all nonfatal violent victimizations during
the year, the Justice Department’s Bureau of Justice
Statistics (BJS) announced today. This represents a 77
percent decline from 7.9 million nonfatal violent
crimes committed by strangers in 1993, according to
the earliest available data from the National Crime
Victimization Survey (NCVS).
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• WASHINGTON – The overall rate of serious violent
crime against youth ages 12 to 17 declined 77
percent from 1994 to 2010, falling from 61.9
victimizations per 1,000 youth to 14.0 victimizations
per 1,000, according to a report released today by
the Justice Department’s Bureau of Justice Statistics
(BJS). Serious violent crimes include rape and other
sexual assaults, robbery and aggravated assault.
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• WASHINGTON – From 1995 to 2005, sexual violence
against U.S. female residents age 12 or older
declined 64 percent from 5.0 per 1,000 females to
1.8, and remained unchanged through 2010,
according to a report, Female Victims of Sexual
Violence, 1994-2010, released today by the Justice
Department’s Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS).
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document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
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• In 2011, there were 31.3 births for every 1,000
adolescent females ages 15-19, or 329,772 babies
born to females in this age group. Eighty-nine
percent of these births occurred outside of
marriage. The 2011 teen birth rate indicates a
dramatic decline of eight percent from 2010 when
the birth rate was 34.2 per 1,000. The teen birth rate
has declined almost continuously over the past 20
years. In 1991, the U.S. teen birth rate was 61.8
births for every 1,000 adolescent females, compared
with 31.3 births for every 1,000 adolescent females
in 2011.
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document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
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Psychological Frame of Mind
• Attitudes of scientific approach
• Critical thinking
• Curiosity
• Skepticism
• Findings are often Counterintuitive
• Objectivity
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What is a Psychologist?
• Where do
Psychologists Work?
• Psychologist vs.
Psychiatrist
• Degrees and Education
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Historical Perspective
• Parents of Psychology
• Western Philosophy - Content
• Biology and Physiology - Methodology
• Founding Fathers and Schools of Thought
• Wilhelm Wundt and Structuralism
• William James and Functionalism
• Charles Darwin and Natural Selection
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Structuralism
• Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
• German philosopher-physician
• First psychology laboratory (1879)
• Identify elements, or structures, of mental
processes
• Introspection
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Functionalism
• William James (1842-1910)
• American Psychologist and Philosopher
• Identify purposes, or functions, of the mind
• Why is human thought adaptive?
• Natural flow of thought, or stream of
consciousness
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Evolution & Natural Selection
• Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
• British Naturalist
• Natural selection is adaptive and functional
• Nature favors traits that promote reproduction
and survival
• Successful characteristics become dominant
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Contemporary Approaches
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Biological
Behavioral
Psychodynamic
Humanistic
Cognitive
Evolutionary
Sociocultural
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Biological Approach
• Focus on Brain and Nervous System
• Neuroscience
• Major recent developments
• Structure, function, development, genetics,
biochemistry of nervous system
• Brain and nervous system are central to
understanding behavior, thought, and emotion
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Behavioral Approach
• Emphasis on observable behavioral responses
and their environmental determinants
• Notable Behaviorists
• John B. Watson (1878-1958)
• B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
• Behavior is lawful
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Psychodynamic Approach
• Emphasis on:
• Unconscious impulses
• Conflict between biological drives and society
• Childhood family experiences
• Founding Father:
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
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Humanistic Approach
• Emphasis on:
• Positive human qualities
• Capacity for positive growth
• Freedom to choose any destiny
• Notable Humanistic Psychologists
• Carl Rogers (1961)
• Abraham Maslow (1971)
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Cognitive Approach
• Emphasis on mental processes involved in
knowing
• How we:
• Direct attention
• Perceive, remember, think
• Solve problems
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Evolutionary Approach
• Use of Evolutionary ideas such as:
• Adaptation
• Reproduction
• Natural selection
• Used as a basis for explaining specific human
behaviors
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Sociocultural Approach
• Examination of ways in which social and
cultural environments influence behavior
• Focus on comparisons of behavior across:
• Countries
• Ethnic and cultural groups within countries
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Figure 1.3 - Steps in the Scientific
Method
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Scientific Method: Observation
• Choose a issue to study
• Phenomenon studied by scientists
• Anything that can change
• Develop a theory
• Idea that attempts to explain observations
• Seeks to explain why something happened
• Example: The environment can affect learning.
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Scientific Method: Hypothesis
• Formulate a hypothesis
• Prediction that is derived from theory
• Prediction that can be tested
• Prediction about the relationship between
variables
• Example: Studying in a brightly colored room
improves learning.
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Scientific Method: Research
• Establish Operational Definitions for variables
• Objective description of variable
• Example: Studying in a brightly colored room
improves learning.
• Example: People with high self-esteem are more
successful.
• Choose Method
• Collect and analyze data
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Scientific Method: Conclusions
• Draw conclusions
• Is theory supported?
• Should theory be changed?
• Evaluate conclusions
• Publication and review
• Ongoing research process
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Types of Psychological Research
• Descriptive research
• Finding out about some variable
• Correlational research
• Discovering relationships between variables
• Experimental research
• Establishing causal relationships
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Descriptive Research
• Describing some phenomemon, without
answering questions of how and why
1. Observation
2. Surveys and interviews
3. Case studies
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Correlational Research
• Examining whether and how variables are
related and change together
• Correlation Coefficient: -1.00 ≤ r ≤ 1.00
• Strength: Number
• Direction: Sign
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Figure 1.4 - Scatter Plots Showing
Positive and Negative Correlations
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Correlation and Causation
• Correlation ≠ causation
• Studying and Good Grades
• Ice Cream Sales and Violence
• Shoe Size and Vocabulary Size
• Third variable problem
• Some other variable accounts for relationship
between two variables
• Third variables also called confounds
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Longitudinal Designs
• Obtaining measures of variables of interest in
multiple waves over time
• Can suggest potential causal relationships
• Causal variable would come first in time
• Causal relationships are not completely clear
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Experimental Research
• Determining whether causal relationship
exists between variables
• Experiment
• Manipulation of one or more variables that are
believed to influence some other variable
• Random Assignment
• Researchers assign participants to groups by
chance
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Experiments and Causation
•
•
•
•
Random assignment helps establish causation
Independent variables  manipulated
Dependent variables
 measured
Experimental groups
• Experience manipulation
• Control groups
• Serve as baseline for comparison
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Experimental Research: Validity
• External validity
• Do experimental results apply, or generalize, to
real world?
• Internal validity
• Are changes in dependent variables due to
independent variables?
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Experimental Research: Bias
• Experimenter bias
• Demand characteristics
• Research participant bias
• Placebo effect
• Double-blind experiment
• Distortions in Self-Report Data
• Social desirability bias
• Response set
• Memory
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What’s Wrong
• A psychologist is conducting an experiment to determine
whether exposure to pornography causes men to commit
more sexual crimes. She randomly assigns 20 men to the
experimental group, who watch a pornographic film, and
20 men to the control group, who watch an exciting, but
not pornographic film, of the same length.
• After the film, she interviews the men and asks them
whether they fell that they would be likely to commit a sex
crime. The results show that more of the men who saw
the pornographic film say they would be likely to commit a
sex crime.
Research Samples
• Population
• Sample
• Random samples likely to be representative of
population
• To allow generalizing of research results
• Sampling Bias
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Ethical Research
• History: World War II
• Research participants have certain rights
• Human participants
• Animal research
• Institutional review board (IRB)
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APA Ethics Guidelines
• Informed consent
• Confidentiality
• Debriefing
• Deception
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Psychology and You
• Avoid generalizing based on little information
• Distinguish between group results and
individual needs
• Look for answers beyond a single study
• Avoid attributing causes where none have
been found
• Consider source of psychological information
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