Transcript Research Methods in Criminology. Theory Construction and

Theory Construction and
Evaluation
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2.
Quiz # 1
Theory Evaluation
What is Theory?
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Theory is a set on interconnected
statements or propositions that explain
how two or more events or factors are
related to one another
The parts of Theory
Concepts are building blocks of theory
 A concept is an idea expressed as a
symbol or in words
 S=d/t; height ;urbanization; poverty
 Concepts have two parts: A symbol (word
or term) and a definition
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The parts of Theory
Assumptions are statements about the
nature of things that are not observable or
testable
 For example, the concept “book” assumes
a system of writing, people who can read,
and the existence of paper
 Without such assumptions idea of a book
makes little sense
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The parts of Theory
“Racial prejudice” rests on several
assumptions
 People who make distinction among
individuals based on their racial heritage,
attach specific characteristics to
membership in a racial group, and make
judgment about goodness of these
characteristics
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Relationships
Theories contain concepts, their
definitions, and assumptions
 More specifically, theories specify how
concepts are related to one another
 R. Merton’s anomie theory of deviance
argues that people can understand
nondeviance and deviance by considering
two key concepts: the goals that a society
defines as worth pursuing and the
legitimate means to achieve these goals
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Merton’s Theory
Nondeviance occurs when people accept
cultural goals and use a socially legitimate
means to reach them
 Deviance occurs when this is not the case
 Merton made a causal statement
(proposition) about the expected
relationship among concepts (variables)
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The aspects of Theory
Direction of reasoning
 The level of social reality that it explains
 Whether it is substantial or formal
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Direction of theorizing
Deductive approach
 Inductive approach
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Level of Theory
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Micro-level theory deals with small slices of time,
space , or number of people
Social Bond Theory (Hirschi, 1969)
Meso-level theory attempts to link macro and
micro levels or to operate at an intermediate
level. Theories of social movements,
organizations, or communities are often at this
level (Merton’s theory)
Macro-level theory concerns the operation of
larger aggregates such as social institutions.
Entire cultural systems, and whole societies
Macro/Micro relationship
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Until recently, one the major division of
20th century in sociology theory was
conflict between Macro/Micro
Many argued polemically that one level is
more fundamental than the other
There is mutual interrelations between
micro and macro levels
Social Structure and Social Learning Theory
Social Structure
Society
Age
Family
Community
Sex
Peers
Race School
Class Others
Social Learning
Differential
Association
Definitions
Imitation
Other Learning
Variables
Criminal Behavior
Conforming Behavior
Individual
Behavior
Focus of Theory
Substantive theory is developed for a
specific area of social concern, such as
delinquent gangs, strikes, divorce, or race
relationships
 Formal theory is developed for a broad
conceptual area in general theory, such as
deviance, socialization, or power
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Focus of Theory
If you want to generate a substantive
theory, then you should think of cases
within the same substantive area. You
might compare several gangs, but you do
not have to theorize about deviance in
general
 If you want to generate a formal theory,
then you should compare cases within the
same form area. You might examine
various forms of deviance (medical,
folkways, legal, etc)
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Criteria for Evaluating Theory
Logical consistency
 Propositions of a theory have to be
logically stated and internally consistent
 Theory that state that criminals are
biologically deficient cannot claim that
socialization is the cause of criminal
behavior
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Criteria for Evaluating Theory
The Scope of a theory refers to the range
of phenomena which it proposes to explain
 A theory that accounts only for the crime
of check forgery may be accurate, but it is
obviously very limited in scope
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Criteria for Evaluating Theory
Parsimony (simplicity of theory’s
structure). The theory based on fewest
assumptions and requiring the fewest
propositions is considered the superior
theory
 A theory which proposes that all crime are
caused by low self-control is much more
parsimonious than a theory that requires a
set of multiple hypotheses to explain
crime
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Differential Association is based upon
these nine postulates:
1. Criminal behavior is learned
2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others
persons in a process of communication
3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior
occurs within intimate personal groups
4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes
techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes
very complicated, sometimes simple and the specific
direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes
5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned
from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or
unfavorable to committing deviant acts
Differential Association is based upon
these nine postulates:
6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of
definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions
unfavorable to violation of the law
7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration,
priority, and intensity.
 Priority - the age of children when first understand
criminal behavior
 Intensity - the level of prestige associated with a
person or group
 Frequency - number of contacts a person has with
groups that condone criminal behavior
 Duration - the length of time the relationship will last
and so its influence over the persons behavior
Differential Association is based upon these
nine postulates:
8. The process of learning criminal behavior by
association with criminal and anticriminal
patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are
involved in any other learning
9. While criminal behavior is an expression of
general needs and values, it is not explained by
those general needs and values, since non
criminal behavior is an expression of the same
needs and values
Criteria for Evaluating Theory
Testability by objective and repeatable
evidence (theory which are untestable are
not scientific)
 Example: If we states that low-self
control is the failure to refrain from crime,
we cannot state that low-self control is a
cause of law violation
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Untestable theories
Propositions are open-ended so that any
contradictory empirical evidence can be
interpreted or re-interpreted to support
the theory
 A theory may propose that males who
robe banks are motivated by an
unconscious impulse to resolve their guilt
over their childhood sexual attraction
toward their mothers
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Untestable theories
If research finds enough bank robbers
who fit this description, then the theory is
supported
 If research uncover that bank robbers
claim their only motive is money then that
does not mean that the theory is rejected
 Denial of these feeling by robbers
supports the theory, because the same
unconscious impulse that motivated them
to rob also rendered them unconscious of
their true motivation
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Untestable Theories
A theory may also be untestable because
its concepts are not measurable by
observable events
 If a theory proposes that people commit
crimes because they are obsessed by
invisible demons, there is no way to prove
it
 Imitation in social learning theory is
observable thing
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Criteria for Evaluating Theory
Empirical validity means that a theory
has been supported by research evidence
 None of the theories is found to be
entirely true or false
 The questions is, what degree of empirical
support does the theory have (weak or
strong)
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Criteria for Evaluating Theory
Usefulness and Policy implications
 Every criminological theory implies a
therapy or policy
 The better the theory explain the problem,
the better it is able to guide efforts to
solve the problem
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In class-assignment # 2(Extracredit)
Level of analysis (macro/micro/meso)
 Formal/Substantive
 Scope/Parsimony/logical consistency
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