Transcript Document

“the three headed
monster”
Varro
 In
ancient Rome, a triumvirate was a
committee of three officials for all types of
purposes
 Amicitae suggested both personal and
political friendships for mutual advantage.
They could change throughout one’s career
and were often sealed by marriages
 Although
triumviratus was an official term,
the First Triumvirate was a private
agreement. Its members did not have a
positive agenda but sought to pool their
respective sources of power in order to
dominate the Senate.
POLITICAL AND
SOCIAL CONTEXT
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After the consulship of Crassus and Pompey Rome became far more
settled both politically and militarily. Both consuls retired into private
life and the senate was once again able to take up its primary position
within the state.
The question still remained as to how they would cope with any future
problems. They had placed themselves in a very dangerous position
towards the end of the 70’s BC and had narrowly avoided paying a
heavy price. Could they avoid doing this again?
The populares, however, had not been extinguished as a political
force.
As long as there were enormous benefits to be gained from holding
public office and the competition remained as fierce and as one sided
as it was there was always going to be number of individuals willing to
use the tribunate to get what they wanted.
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The Eastern Command exposes a contradiction in
Roman politics, whereby Pompey, in the process of
serving Rome’s interests, became an increasing
threat to the state itself
The return of Pompey
With the Catilinarian conspiracy coming to an end
Pompey, who was drawing things to a close in the
East, began to look after his interests in Rome.
 A tribune Nepos, acting for Pompey, proposed that
Pompey should be summoned back to tackle Catiline
and to be able to stand for the consulship in
absentia.
 Nepos was opposed by other tribunes and despite
rioting in Rome in favour of the bill the senate
passed a senatus consultum ultimum and the bill
was thwarted.
 By the end of 62 with Pompey’s return the political
situation in Rome was in the balance.
 Cicero was hoping that he could draw the factions of
Rome together, events were to prove otherwise.
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Upon Pompey’s return from the East he would need
to get land to settle his veterans.
This was
important if he was to be able to use them as clients
in the future.
 Crassus knew this and in 64 through the tribune
Rullus proposed an agrarian bill which was to set up a
commission of ten (a decemviri) to buy up land and
establish colonies for a period of 5 years.
 The agrarian bill would also be popular with the
unemployed people of Rome who no doubt hoped to
gain increased access to corn if not the land itself.
 Either way Crassus hoped to gain an important
political bargaining tool in the event of Pompey’s
return.
 Once again Cicero spoke against the measure and
Rullus withdrew the measure. Crassus had been
thwarted again.
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Pompey turns populares
Pompey’s position was about to change and the
cause can be found with the attitude and actions of
the small optimates faction within the senate itself.
 Firstly Pompey was rejected by Cato (a prominent
optimate) when he suggested that he should marry
one of his relations.
 Then his proposed eastern settlement wasn’t ratified
by the senate neither did the senate agree to
provide land for his veterans.
 Essentially his requests weren’t unreasonable but
would certainly have consolidated his power if not
actually give him anymore.
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Pompey therefore turned to a tribune Flavius to
propose a bill that would settle his veterans.
 Although there was some senatorial opposition the
bill was eventually passed but the senate’s
opposition had shown Pompey that the senate was
not necessarily on his side and had forced him to
take populares measures.
 Despite Pompey’s turn to the populares the senate
continued in the defence of their own vested
interests.
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Crassus and Caesar were natural political allies
if not natural friends.
Caesar had already made a bit of a name for
himself in the law courts and by supporting
various bits of legislation that were of a
populares nature (Scullard pg 95&96).
Crassus on the other hand had the influence
and, perhaps more importantly, the wealth to
promote his own interests as well as those of
others (including Caesar).
With Pompey away (from 67 onwards) Crassus
began to involve himself more actively in
Roman politics for his own interests.
 The problem in Roman politics is that from
now on individuals are playing politics for
their own interests against those of the state.
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Crassus’ initial steps were tentative although
certainly showed his openly populares
character.
Crassus was almost certainly involved in the
Catilinarian conspiracy, which began in 65
BC, in with wealth, influence and troops if
necessary. Crassus needed to counter balance
this.
Crassus, however, need more practical
bargaining chips if he was to oppose Pompey
in the future.
His first step was to gain a wider client base,
in particular in the provinces.
If Pompey was successful in the East then he
would certainly return with an incredibly
wide client base that would provide him
Crassus’ Motive
Spain: Initially Crassus arranged through his
patronage to have Calpurnius Piso sent tp Spain as
quaestor propraetore.
 Unfortunately he was killed soon after his arrival.
 Gaul: Crassus, as Censor, then proposed that the
transpandane Gauls should once more receive full
citizenship.
 Opposed by his optimate colleague Catulus the
measure was not carried but he would certainly
have gained their support (Scullard pg 104).
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Egypt: At some point around 65/4 BC Crassus then
used a tribune who proposed the annexation of
Egypt with the supposed intention of sending Caesar
out to administer the process.
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Egypt would have provided an even better military base
against Pompey but would more importantly put Crassus in
control of a vast supply of corn with which he could bribe the
masses and win over the equites.
The Optimates naturally opposed the measure and
Cicero, who was still representing Pompey’s
interests, spoke against the measure and was no
doubt instrumental in its defeat.
 Crassus, despite being thwarted at every step buy
the optimates, continued to try and gain more
power and influence. This time, however, the steps
he takes are more linked to the threat of Pompey
than the threat of the optimates
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Caesar was also increasingly active.
 As Aedile of 65 he had stage magnificent games (no
doubt with the help of Caesar’s money).
 He also gained the post of Pontifex Maximus (again
almost certainly with the help of Crassus)
 Caesar was also active in the law courts prosecuting
a number of optimates (although he was defeated by
Cicero he would have gained some popular support)
(Scullard pg 108).
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Pompey was in a position to take control in Rome in the mode
of Sulla but while Rome waited in anticipation Pompey merely
disbanded his troops and returned to Rome as a private citizen.
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The senate now had a chance to settle the delicate situation in
Rome instead they managed to push the populares Pompey,
Crassus and Caesar closer together.
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Crassus was once again thwarted by the optimates when he
proposed that a harsh tax bargain should be redrafted.
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Although a fairly bold request it was not completely unreasonable
but would certainly have cemented Crassus’ popularity with the
equites.
Pompey, at this point, was still essentially on the side of
republican government. If not totally committed to the
Optimates he was by no means a populares either.
 Cicero
to Atticus, mid-to-late December, 60
 BCE (Letters to Atticus 2.3.3-4):
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“I have had a visit from Cornelius —Balbus, I mean,
Caesar’s intimate. He assured me that Caesar will follow
my and Pompey’s advice in all things and will try to bring
Pompey and Crassus together. This course presents the
following advantages:
intimate association with Pompey, with Caesar too, if I
want it, reconciliation with my enemies, peace with the
populace, tranquillity in my old age.”
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Caesar’s
Motive
Caesar was also returning to Rome in the 60BC having
been governor in Spain the previous year.
He was due a triumph but also wanted to stand for the
consulship of 59 BC but as a commander of an army he
wasn’t allowed to enter the city until the day of his
triumph.
He consequently asked the senate to be allowed to stand
for the consulship in absentia.
This was not unprecedented but considering Caesar’s
previous career it is not surprising that the senate
declined his request.
Their decision, however, was short-sighted and naturally
drove Caesar, Crassus and Pompey closer together to the
extent that in 60 BC the three formed a secret amicitia
to work for their mutual interests.
“Cato was devoted to the
public but the public that
counted was Cato’s own
class, the hereditary
nobility. Today the Cato
Institute…is named after
the man because he
resisted Caesar’s rule and
supposedly championed
liberty. Needless to say, the
narrow class nature of that
liberty remains
unacknowledged by Cato’s
admirers.”
Michael Parenti
“rigid justice that will not bend a clemency or
favor” Cicero
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Together the three had the support of:
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The Equites (Crassus)
The urban populace (Caesar
and Pompey)
Military backing (Pompey)
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As such they could impose their will on
the senate as they wished.
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To achieve their aims they needed
someone with actual political power so
Caesar finally got his wish of the
consulship and was duly elected to the
post of 59BC.
“ A conspiracy against the state by its
three leading citizens”. Livy
AN UNOFFICIAL AMICITAE
“ He Caesar entered the city and immediately adopted a policy which deceived everyone except Cato. This was to effect a reconciliation between
Pompey and Crassus, the two most powerful men in Rome. Caesar brought these men together, making them friends instead of enemies and used
their united power for the strengthening of himself.” Plutarch
CRASSUS
Crassus attempted to gain control of the province
of Egypt but the bill was rejected by Cicero
Crassus financially backs Catiline as Consul but
unsuccessful.
In 63 through the tribune Rullius,tried to
introduce a bill to redistribute land in Italy and
the provinces.
“ The hidden purpose of this measure was to
concentrate in the hands of the allotment
commissioner all territories upon which Pompey
might rely for his veterans. He would be obliged
to purchase them on Crassus’ terms.”
“ But this subtle intrigue was unmasked by
Cicero soon after his accession to the
Consulship and the bill was withdrawn.” Cary
Crassus in 61 had become the spokesperson for
the equestrian tax farmers who had contracted to
collect taxes in Asia, however because of
economic disruption found that they would
barely cover their costs.
Crassus appealed to the Senate to grant them a
Cato and Metellus Celer spoke against
rebate.
it
CICERO
CAESAR
“ Directly after his Praetorship Caesar
received Spain…He therefore turned for help
to Crassus who was the richest man in Rome
and who needed Caesar’s vigor and fire for
carrying out his own political campaign
against Pompey. Crassus met the terms of the
creditors… and gave a personel guarantee for
830 talents.”
“ The law was that those who desired the
honour of a triumph had to wait outside the
city, while candidates for Consulship had to be
present in person.
Caesar sent to the Senate asking permission
Cato
for friends to put forward his name.
opposed the request and managed to get the
vote put off by wasting time and speaking for
the entire day.” Plutarch
Prior to the election of Consul the Senate had
decided on the provinces to be allocated in 59.
This was the administration of the forests and
cattle tracks of Italy.
POMPEY
“ When Pompey got back,the Senate
wishing to curtail his great reputation
were all the more urgent in
encouraging Lucullus to take an
active part in politics…He made a
vigorous and overwhelming attack on
him in connection with the
administrative arrangements and with
Cato
the support of
gained a
majority in the Senate for his own
views…
Pompey hoped to remarry into the
family of Cato, but Cato refused seeing
it as a form of bribery and the whole
thing a scheme to corrupt him.
Pompey defeated and harried as he
was, found it necessary to look for
support to popular tribunes and young
adventurers..” Plutarch
Not only had the optimates rebuffed
him personally they had discredited
him by preventing him from honouring
his promises to his veterans
SENATE OF ROME
LUCULLUS
CATO
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Caesar was able to manipulate the other members of the
triumvirate in order to serve his own purposes. Caesar
gained the most from his participation in the first
triumvirate out of the three men. He gained a consulship
through the use of Crassus’s financial support, and Pompey’s
popularity. Caesar was also able to maintain a very
successful pro-consulship where he gained both military
glory and a lot of wealth. The other members of the
Triumvirate assisted him in this by acting on his behalf back
in Rome, for a time at least. He also gained a triumph
through his pro-consulship in Gaul.
The continued and growing enmity of Pompey and Crassus in
Rome, acting through their agents , Milo and Clodius, forced
Caesar to mediate at Luca in 56BC .Whether their enmity
was as extreme as ancient sources suggest is debatable.
Marshall sees it as merely typical “aristocratic rivalry”.
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“ A conspiracy against the state by
its three leading citizens.”
Livy
" A city like a ship, can gain stability
from opposed forces which together
prevent it rocking...but now these
forces were united into one and
there was nothing to stop the
movement of violent part interest
from overthrowing
everything.....the first disaster and
the worst had been, not the quarrel
and split between Caesar and
Pompey, but the friendship and
harmony that had existed between
them. " Plutarch Pompey
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" Thus the three for
these reasons formed
their friendship and
ratified it with oaths,
and then managed
public affairs among
themselves. Next they
gave to each other and
received in turn one
from another, whatever
they set their hearts on
and whatever it suited
them to do in view of
the circumstances”
Cassius Dio
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"By uncompromising
refusal to meet the
demands of Pompey,
Caesar and Crassus
the senate naturally
drove them into each
others arms. The
three men agreed to
form a political
amicitia ....."
 Scullard
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Technically it had been
a master stroke to
break the deadlock and
bring Crassus and
Pompey together. This
move had robbed the
Cato faction of the
opportunity to paralyse
the main actors by
playing one off against
the other.”
 Luciano
Canfora 2007
What differences do we see between ancient
and modern views of the Triumvirate?????????
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“The inertia at the heart of
the Republic was alienating
many citizens at all levels of
society…..With hindsight
many would see 60BC as the
year when the disease
infecting the Republic
became terminal.”
Adrian Goldsworthy
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“ In view of its( Senate)
weaknesses did it not need
all the help it could get. If
the res publica was in
danger, was not an alliance
with Pompey an obvious
precaution? And did it really
make any sense to pursue
such a petty policy towards
Caesar.”
Christian Meier