Transcript How far can teachers across divided Cyprus get? Teachers

How far can teachers
across divided Cyprus
get?
Teachers’ accounts of
teaching
controversial events.
Α comparative study between
T/C and G/C
primary school teachers
who appear most willing to
teach controversial issues in the
context of a conflict - ridden
society like the Cypriot one.
My objectives
1) to draw out “thick descriptions” (Geertz 1973)
from the perspective of the teachers who hold a
critical stance towards the hegemonic
discourses and practices of their schools.
2) to investigate what teachers say they do with
their students; whether and to what extent
these teachers record instances of alternative
practices that break the dominant conventions
of silence.
3) to enumerate the difficulties faced by these
teachers, how they define their needs and under
which conditions they believe they could do
their job better.
Ι was also inquisitive to view all the above
objectives through the interplay between the
sociopolitical structures and teachers’
“personal cost”.
Finally I would like to highlight the fact that
this study has a diagnostic character since it’s
the first time a study deals with the issue of
teaching controversial issues across the divide.
The Sociopolitical Context of Research: Loud
Memories and Loud Silences in a divided society
Cyprus is a divided country. Violent conflicts in
1963 put to an end of the coexistence of GC and
TC ever since.
In 1974 Turkish “invasion/intervention” has
deepened even further the parallel and
antagonistic lives of the two communities. The
war consequently caused more deaths, more
missing persons, refugees and various other
social and personal traumas that war and
dislocation cause. One third of the total
population of Greek Cypriots was displaced to the
south side and the one forth of the Turkish
Cypriots were also displaced to the north.
The Sociopolitical Context of Research: Loud
Memories and Loud Silences in a divided society
In 2003, under the pressure of political
discussion concerning the resolution of the
“Cyprus issue” by the UN Secretary General
Kofi Annan, two crossing points were opened
after 40 years in Nicosia allowing the contact
between the two communities.
The Sociopolitical Context of Research: Loud
Memories and Loud Silences in a divided society
In April 2004, a few days before Cyprus’
accession in EU, a comprehensive U.N.
proposal for re-unification on the basis of a bizonal, bi-communal federation – known as the
‘Annan Plan’– was put to simultaneous
referenda on both sides, but led to failure,
with a 65% “yes”-vote by the Turkish Cypriots
and a 76% “no”-vote by the Greek Cypriots.
The dominant discourses on the island across
the divide are those of victimhood/blaming
the other and within these discourses two
generations of Greek and Turkish Cypriots
grew up. However, a handful of people, such
as journalists, film directors, activists,
educators, social and political scientists (but
yet no historians), has started to emerge in an
attempt to achieve openings through their
work for the breaking of the convention of
silence and for alternative interpretations of
the past.
Research Design/Methodology
This paper is based on 40 semi-structured
interviews with primary school teachers, 20
Greek Cypriots and 20 Turkish Cypriots. The
teachers who participated in the present
research aged between 28 and 50 years old
belong to the second generation of the
“Cyprus issue”.
Research Design/Methodology
I have met most of these people and I know
them in person as I have been participating in
bi-communal activities for the last six years.
Furthermore, in some cases I used the
“snowballing” recruitment technique, that is
the mobilization of the interviewers’ social
networks for accessing potential informants
(Bernard 2002).
Research Design/Methodology
All of the interviewers have participated or
they themselves have organized many bicommunal workshops, conferences,
symposiums and events. For these reasons, I
would characterize them as “the most lighted”
teachers to teach controversial/taboo issues
or as the most willing teachers to raise the
discussion about these issues in their
classroom.
Research Design/Methodology
Following Kitson and McCully’s (2005)
typology of teacher’s attitudes towards the
teaching of conflicting historical events, I am
not interested in the “avoiders”, or the
“containers”. I am interested in the teachers
that are most likely to adopt a “risk taker”
attitude.
Research Design/Methodology
In other words, the sample of my research
does not include teachers who either have
never heard of the traumas of the other
community or even if they have heard of
them, they adopt a defensive ingroup
perspective which is used to justify one’s
ingroup behavior (Zebel et al 2004), or to use
a more Freudian language, they are still at the
stage of “denial” or affective “amnesia”
(Igartua & Paez 1997).
Research Design/Methodology
During the data analysis I was looking for
patterns, motifs, and issues of relevance,
which then were coded to allow further
analysis.
Analysis of issues and comparison
In what follows, I provide summaries of the
major issues identified by the teachers. The
goal of this presentation is not to engage in a
detailed empirical description and comparison
of the findings as such, but to highlight the
most important findings and conclusions of
this research.
Summary of findings
1) Teachers’ accounts across the divide reveal
that silence is maintained regarding the
teaching of controversial issues. Teaching
controversial issues does not take place
systematically and in depth, even among
educators who are willing to start a dialogue
with their students about the past.
Despite the fact that outside the
school they promote dialogue with
“the other” and they recognize the
atrocities committed by their “own”
side, inside the school context they
follow the dominant norm. On several
occasions they stated they would have
liked to act differently but in the end
they remained silent.
Andros said in an ironic tone:
(Greek Cypriot teacher, 28 years old, BA and MA degrees)
“Since in our everyday discourse in the school
there are no Turkish Cypriots, how are we going
to tell them suddenly that not only there are
Turkish Cypriots but also that there are missing
Turkish Cypriots? […] We always talk about our
own missing persons. (pause) Sometimes I can’t
stand school. I think that by remaining silent I am
going to reproduce another ignorant generation
like my own”.
Pembe
(TC, female, 40 yrs old, Atatϋrk Teacher Training Academy)
“I refer to GC sufferings in 1974
in a general way. I don’t get into
details about what happened”.
1st Differentiation: the reference to the other
I have recorded a differentiation
between Greek and Turkish Cypriot
teachers, namely that Turkish Cypriot
teachers seem to speak more easily
to their students about the suffering
of the other side.
2) A second finding of this research is related with
teachers’ accounts of the difficulties they face
and the circumstances under which they believe
that controversial issues could be taught.
Furthermore, these accounts reveal the second
differentiation between the GC and the TC, that is
they adduce different reasons about why they do
not teach in depth controversial issues.
Most Greek Cypriot teachers are not involved
in talking about the “Cyprus issue” directly.
They attempt to analyze the factors that deter
them from teaching controversial/taboo
issues. So the Cypriot issue remains a
background context for them.
Strong social control is a crucial factor for the
G/C teachers (parents, teachers’ Union,
media, school’s leadership, other colleagues)
that influences their every day choices and
practices at their schools.
Most probably that is why G/C teachers adopt
a strategy of avoidance, some consciously and
others unconsciously, to deal with this
negative environment described above. In
most of the interviews with G/C teachers it
was demonstrated that they keep their
opinion to themselves to avoid ostracism in
their school or avoid possible attacks by the
media or parents.
That is why they express fear, suppressed
anger or they are driven to apathy while they
are able to recognize what is wrong.
Fear of Media, parents, students
George (Greek Cypriot teacher, 37 years old, BA & MA):
Now that I think about it, the tactic I use is that instead of
doing something, I avoid it. I do it unconsciously. Imagine
something happens with a parent and the next day
“Phileleftheros” newspaper writes “Teacher sides with the
Turkish side in his teaching”... The parents, children and
colleagues will give me hell. Remember what happened with
Rooftop Theatre? (my emphasis)
School’s leadership, Curriculum
Christos (31 years old, BA & MA) narrates how the head teacher of her school actually
stopped her from inviting a Turkish Cypriot class to their school.
“The head teacher of the school invited me in his office and asked me about my
intentions. I told him that I was thinking about inviting a Turkish Cypriot friend and his
classroom to our school […]He brings the curriculum and he opens it on page 134. I will
never forget this. He read aloud that the goal of a history lesson is to help students
develop a conscience about the tragedy of their motherland as a result of the coup, the
Turkish invasion and the occupation and to reinforce their fighting spirit, etc. I mean, after
this there was no way I would invite my friend to the school”.
School’s culture
Andros: One day I saw something that made me sick. On the 25th of March
performance, the leading actor, a very nice boy who enjoys hip hop, died like a
hero while fighting the Turks. His classmate, dressed in black, slowly climbs
onto the stage and covers him with a Greek flag. For goodness sake! For
goodness sake! (at this point the teacher raises his voice).
Researcher: Did you do something about it?
Andros: What could I do? I was furious. I was shaking due to my anger.
Researcher: I don’t know... You could have mentioned it as a problem during
the staff meeting so that it could be discussed... Since you felt so bad or you
considered what took place as unacceptable, why should you remain silent?
Andros: Now that I am thinking about it again, I get more angry with my self...
I’m afraid to get into trouble. This is what I am thinking about. Who will
support me? I’ll be alone (my emphasis)
Research in other conflicting societies,
namely Northern Ireland, has shown that
teaching controversial issues, particularly
those that might involved connections to the
present, places tremendous demands on
teachers. If they do not have a strong teacher
network, flexible curriculum, school
leadership or support from other colleagues
within their school it is practically impossible
for teachers to engage their students in more
current and controversial discussions (Barton
& McCully 2007; McCully 2005).
On the other hand, T/C educators have a
favourable social context that allows T/C
teachers to participate openly and engage in
the exchanging of views with the other
community.
Tarik (Turkish Cypriot Teacher, male, 38 years old, Atatϋrk
Teacher Training Academy)
Νο, no I am not afraid of the parents. Most
parents think like me. Anyway, if something
happens I have the teacher union behind me.
They will support me till the end. Till the end!
(the last phrase is told very passionately and
loudly, my emphasis)
Here, I must mention that Turkish Cypriot
teachers Union, KTÖS, has a long tradition in
favor of a dialogue between teachers and
students of the two communities.
Representatives of the Union, participate,
support and organize many bi-communal
events.
On the contrary, POED, the Greek Cypriot
teacher’s Union, reacted against the objective of
Reconciliation which was defined as a
fundamental objective by the Ministry of
Education of the Republic of Cyprus (school year
2008 – 2009). With a circular letter sent to all
primary schools of Cyprus, POED underlined that
Greek Cypriot teachers who would start having
contacts with the other side “will be alone”, given
that the Union considers that the objective of the
Ministry “is not compatible with the fact that we
live in a semi occupied country”.
T/C teachers express disappointment and
fatigue. They carried out a brave first step by
changing their text books (2005), however
along the way they found that the political
status quo remains the same and prevents the
continuation of this initiative.
Furthermore, the new Cyprus
history textbooks (2005) were
lately withdrawn when right
wing Eroğlu was elected
President (2009).
The Turkish Cypriot educators’ focus is more
political in the sense that it revolves around
the consequences of the unresolved “Cyprus
issue”. They feel that the challenge of
reconciliation with the past and with the
Greek Cypriots has been lost forever after the
failure of the referendum of April 2004. They
express feelings of deep disappointment,
despair and melancholy.
Most of the TC teachers (18/20) mention that
the major problem they face nowadays is the
“physical survival” of their community.
Furthermore, the increase of the children of
Turkish immigrants changes the population
and the priorities in their classrooms.
Another T/C teacher, Mustafa (39 years old,
male, Ataturk Teacher Training Academy),
pointed out that,
“ I am disappointed with peace process so I feel
frustrated talking or even teaching about the past.
I am losing my strength (my emphasis). 65% of our
schools consist of children whose families have
arrived from Turkey. Any Turkish Cypriots that are
able to leave Cyprus, they leave Cyprus. Those of us
with money, send our children to private schools, in
the North or South. I find it ridiculous teaching these
children about the past of the Greek Cypriots and the
Turkish Cypriots. They are not interested […] I think,
unavoidably, we are going to have potential tension
between Turkish immigrants and local Turkish
people. This is our problem now.”
What do the above extract tell us?
Firstly, there is a growing belief among the T/C
teachers who are very active in the bi–
communal peace movement that there is no
hope in reaching a solution to the “Cyprus
problem” and this belief is reflected in their
work (at least this is what they state).
Secondly, there is a growing xenophobic
discourse towards immigrants from Turkey
who are becoming the majority population in
the South.
This also reveals the inconsistency of the T/C
teachers’ discourse. On the one hand, they are
very positive towards Greek Cypriots and on
the other hand, they are very negative
towards immigrants from Turkey. From the
point of view of T/C teachers, the “other” is
not Greek Cypriots, but Turks.
Lastly, if one takes into consideration the
aforementioned extract, what are the implications for
history teaching? Is the teaching of controversial issues
of the recent past a matter of Greek Cypriots and
Turkish Cypriots only? Do we have to start thinking
about how we could teach history in this changing
context without excluding any group?
3) Teaching methodology
T/C teachers’ accounts reveal the tendency of
preaching instead of developing a teaching
environment that investigates and values
conflicting viewpoints. A few G/C showed a
similar tendency to preach. In these cases the
teacher remains the information source and
substitutes the dominant ethnocentric
narrative of the school with another narrative
often characterized by simplistic humanism
about “the sorrow of the other”.
Many teachers used specialized vocabulary
such as the term “empathy”. Some others
argued that it is necessary to adopt a
“multiperspective approach” in the teaching
of conflicting issues. However, while the
teachers say that they use these techniques
in the classroom, finally in the course of the
discussion it was made clear that the word
“empathy” or “multiperspectivity” was just
an impressive slogan.
• Researcher: You said before that you teach 1974 under
the title «Empathy». How do you cultivate “Empathy”
to your students?
• Tarik: I talk to them, I talk to them (my empasis) I say
Turkish Cypriots suffered so much between 1963 till
1974 but also Greek Cypriot suffered a lot after 1974 …
(Long Pause)
• Researcher: Yeah, ok. But do you use any sources to
teach, for example, a theme like “Refugees in Cyprus”.
Sources like photos, testimonies by refugees,
newspaper extracts, etc.?
• Tarik: No, no, I tell them.
While most of the teachers have enriched their
pedagogic vocabulary with contemporary, upto-date terms, their practice still follows
teaching from the teacher’s desk with the
teacher being the basic source of information
(“Ι tell them”, “I tried to transmit that we also
made mistakes”).
Third Differentiation:
Teachers’ understandings of conceptual/methodological tools
However, most of the Greek Cypriot teachers
(13/20) appeared to have an in-depth grasp of
the pedagogical tools of history didactics and
they could provide practical examples on how
to teach the issues differently.
Maria (G/C, female, 35 years old, BA):
When the yearly goal was about intercultural
dialogue, we were allowed to have intercultural
dialogue with all people in the world except Turks
and Turkish Cypriots. I guess now we can apply
the term multiperspectivity, which is a slogan
nowadays in Cyprus – I mean even nationalists
use it in all contexts except in the context of the
modern history of Cyprus
Yiannis (Greek Cypriot teacher, 38 years old, BA and MA in Education):
Researcher: Can you give me an example of what you mean by “change our
epistemology”?
Yiannis: The way we teach things. For example, Grivas in schools is eh...
Grivas was a legendary EOKA hero. He does not have a past and neither
a future. He is a legendary figure who always wins the battles. He is
invincible [pause] he is not a historical person.
Researcher: How would you like to teach about him?
Yiannis: I would start by posing a basic question which I would write on the
board: Why does the figure of Grivas still divide, Greek Cypriots amongst
themselves and Greek and Turkish Cypriots? Then I would provide
sources which refer to him and his actions in various ways.
However, GC teachers despite their in depth
understanding of epistemological concepts
and methodological issues admitted that they
do not dare to pose historic questions like the
one aforementioned to their pupils.
4) Epistemological beliefs are not enough
So, a fourth very significant finding of this
study is that G/C’s epistemological beliefs are
not a reason strong enough to convince them
to put their beliefs into teaching practices. The
personal cost is too high.
Also, there is the danger for teachers despite their
high level of epistemological understanding not
to consider controversial issue discussions to be
part of their history curriculum and some may
explicitly avoid such topics because “they
consider history either to be an academic subject
which is not meant to contribute to societal
goals” (Barton & McCully 2007: 17) or to have
any relation with other curriculum areas like
Citizenship Education, Human Rights Education,
even Media Education.
5) Similarity: a shared concern among
teachers across the divide that,
“There is no need to scratch our wounds if we
want to move forward. We have to emphasize
the things that unite the two communities,
not the things that divide them in the past
(Irene, GC teacher, female, 31 years old, BA,
MA)
Similarly Tarik (TC teacher, male, 38 years old, Atatϋrk
Teacher Training Academy):
“I am afraid I might cause the opposite effect
and create a bigger divide. They will say that it
is impossible to live together like Denktash
says”.
Similarity
On the one hand, according to the teachers of
my sample, nationalism as a state ideology is
identified as the obstacle to elaborate
historical taboos with their students.
Similarity
On the other hand, there is also a certain
grade of self censorship by the teachers
because they consider that if one emphasizes
the oppositions and the sufferings caused by
one side on the other and vice versa, we may
re-experience the past.
Similarity
There is a common “progressive” discourse
which consciously chooses suppressing the
severe and bloody conflicts that happened
between the two communities for the sake of
emphasizing the common experiences and
attitudes.
Similarity: Self censored teachers
with “good” intentions
In other words, the discourse for the peaceful
coexistence and the discourse of the violent
past have not yet managed to enter in a
unified interpretation scheme which will be
able to be used as the tool to evaluate two
opposite, at a first glance, memories of the
past.
Instances of Resistance
Only a few teachers narrated moments of
resistance (12/40). I have classified teachers’
narrations in three groups which show the
level of intervention by the teachers:
• Implicit work in the classroom
• Implicit work outside their classroom
• Explicit, systematic work inside and outside
the classroom
Implicit work in the classroom
Ali (TC, male, 43 years old, Teachers’ College):
I do not use the official discourse when I teach
history. For example I never use the term
«peace operation». “Peace operation!”, It’s
silly. I say “operation”, “the war of 1974”,
“1974”, etc. I am very careful with words. I use
neutral vocabulary. I always think how the
words I use will sound to a Greek Cypriot.
Implicit work outside their classroom
• Irene (GC, female, 31 years old, BA, MA):
“When I decorate the school’s notice board for
national celebrations I do not use militaristic
material”.
• Umut (TC, female, 40 years old, Teacher’s College)
“When visiting the Museum of Barbarism I let my
pupils understand that they can stay out in the
yard to play. I explain in an implicit way that I will
stay outside in the yard because the day is very
beautiful”.
Explicit, systematic work inside and
outside the classroom
Only two G/C teachers fall into this category.
For example, Gregory (male, 36 years old, BA & MA) stressed the
importance of visible alternative practices
“I always take the responsibility for the national celebrations in my school.
It’s an opportunity to work with my students in depth about a theme. I
prefer to work more but have an opportunity to send a message through
my work about how we can “work with” the past differently. The
celebration of national anniversaries in schools is an opportunity to show
to the whole school community how we can remember the past
differently. It’s an opportunity for an alternative history lesson: use of
sources, conflicting interpretations, family stories, show what
anachronism causes. It’s also an opportunity to show how history is used
in modern societies. With my students I do not concentrate only on the
telling of the story but also in the story of the telling of the story”.