Transcript Basic Moral Orientations Overview

ETHICS, PROFESSIONALISM AND
CRITICISM OF THE SOURCES
MIMA LECTURE
Gordana Dodig-Crnkovic
Department of Computer Science and Electronics
Mälardalen University
20 August 2008
1
Professional Ethics Course

Information about the course:
http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/cd5590
http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/ethics/
[Website provides ethics resources including case studies and
contextualized scenarios in applied/professional ethics, working
examples of applied ethical problems used in teaching to highlight
relevant ethical principles, materials on informed consent,
confidentiality, assessment, privacy, trust and similar. ]
2
CONTENT
– Identifying Ethical Issues
Basic Moral Orientations
Ethical Relativism, Absolutism, and Pluralism
Immanuel Kant The Ethics of Duty (Deontological Ethics)
Utilitarianism
Rights
Justice
The Ethics of Character: Virtues and Vices
Egoism
Moral Reasoning and Gender
Environmental Ethics
 Professional Issues
 Criticism of the Sources
 Conclusions
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Identifying Ethical
Issues
Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.
Director, The Values Institute
University of San Diego
4
Ethics and Morality
The terms ethics and morality are often used
interchangeably - indeed, they usually can mean the
same thing, and in casual conversation there isn't a
problem with switching between one and the other.
However, there is a distinction between them in
philosophy!
5
Ethics and Morality
Etymology
Morality and ethics have same roots, mores which
means manner and customs from the Latin and
etos which means custom and habits from the Greek.
Robert Louden, Morality and Moral Theory
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Ethics and Morality
Strictly speaking, morality is used to refer to what we
would call moral standards and moral conduct while
ethics is used to refer to the formal study of those
standards and conduct. For this reason, the study of
ethics is also often called "moral philosophy."
7
Ethics and Morality

Morality: first-order set of beliefs and practices about
how to live a good life.

Ethics: a second-order, conscious reflection on the
adequacy of our moral beliefs.
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ETHICS
Philosophers commonly distinguish:
descriptive ethics, the factual study of the
ethical standards or principles of a group or
tradition;
normative ethics, the development of theories
that systematically denominate right and
wrong actions;
applied ethics, the use of these theories to form
judgments regarding practical cases; and
meta-ethics, careful analysis of the meaning
and justification of ethical claims
Source: www.ethicsquality.com/philosophy.html
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SOCIETY VALUES
ETHICS
LAW
MORAL
10
Identifying Moral Issues
Moral concerns are unavoidable in life.
 They are not always easy to identify and
define.

11
Ethics as an Ongoing Conversation
Professional discussions of ethical
issues in journals.
 We come back to ideas again and
again, finding new meaning in them.

See http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/ethics.htm
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The Focus of Ethics

Ethics as the Evaluation of Other
People’s Behavior
– We are often eager to pass judgment on
others

Ethics as the Search for Meaning and
Value in Our Own Lives
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Ethics as the Evaluation of Other
People’s Behavior
Ethics often used as a weapon
 Hypocrisy
 Possibility of knowing other people
 The right to judge other people
 The right to intervene
 Judging and caring

14
Ethics as the Search for Meaning
and Value in Our Own Lives
Positive focus
 Aims at discerning what is good
 Emphasizes personal responsibility for
one’s own life

15
What to Expect from Ethics
Identificationa and description of an
issue
 Explanation
 Support in deliberation

16
The Point of Ethical Reflection

Ethics as the evaluation of other
people’s behavior

Ethics as the search for the meaning of
our own lives
17
Basic Moral
Orientations
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On what basis do we make moral
decisions? (1)

Divine Command Theories -- “Do what the
Bible tells you” or the Will of God

Utilitarianism -- “Make the world a better place”

Virtue Ethics -- “Be a good person”

The Ethics of Duty -- “Do your duty”

Immanuel Kant’s Moral Theory

Ethical Egoism -- “Watch out for #1”
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On what basis do we make moral
decisions? (2)

The Ethics of Natural and Human Rights -“...all people are created ...with certain
unalienable rights”

Social Contract Ethics

Moral Reason versus Moral Feeling

Evolutionary Ethics
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Divine Commands

Being good is equivalent to doing
whatever the Bible--or the Qur’an or
some other sacred text or source of
revelation--tells you to do.

“What is right” equals “What God tells
me to do.”
21
Utilitarianism
(Consequentialism)


Hedonistic utilitarianism: Seeks to
reduce suffering and increase pleasure
or happiness
Epicurus (341-270 BC) Greek
“We count pleasure as the originating principle and the goal for the
blessed life”. (Letter to Menoeceus)

Epicurus
(341-270 BC)
Frances Hutcheson (1694-1747) Irish
“The action is best, which procures the greatest happiness for the
greatest number; and that worst, which in like manner, occasions
misery.” (An Inquiry Concerning Moral Good and Evil, 3.8)


Bentham’s Utilitarian Calculus
Mill’s Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
1806-1873
“Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote [general]
happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of [general]
happiness. (Utilitarianism, 2)

http://www.utilitarism.net/ (in Swedish)
Jeremy Bentham
(1748-1832)
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Virtue Ethics

One of the oldest moral theories.
Ancient Greek epic poets and playwrights Homer
and Sophocles describe the morality of their
heroes in terms of virtues and vices.

Plato - cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage,
temperance, and justice. Even accepted by
Plato (427-347 BCE)
early Christian theologians.

Aristotle: The Nichomachean Ethics

Morality is a matter of being a good
person, which involves having virtuous
character traits.

Seeks to develop individual character
Aristotle (384-322 BCE.)
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The Ethics of Duty
(Deontological* Ethics)

Ethics is about doing your duty.
Cicero (stoic): On duties (De Officiis)
http://www.stoics.com/cicero_book.html
 Medieval philosophers:
duties to God, self and others
 Kant: only moral duties to self and others


Samuel von Pufendorf (1632-1694):

Intuitionism: we don’t logically deduce
moral duties, we know them as thy are!
For each duty there is a corresponding
virtue.

Marcus Tullius Cicero
(106 - 43) BC
moral duties spring from our instinctive drive for survival –
we should be sociable in order to survive.
* ‘deon’ = duty
Immanuel Kant
1724-1804
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Immanuel Kant’s Moral Theory

Human reason makes moral
demands on our lives

The categorical imperative: Act
so that the maxim [determining
motive of the will] may be
capable of becoming a universal
law for all rational beings."

We have moral responsibility to
develop our talents
Immanuel Kant
1724-1804
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Ethical Egoism
Says the only person to look out for is yourself
Ayn Rand, The Ethics of Selfishness
Well known for her novel, especially Atlas Shrugged



 Ayn
Rand sets forth the moral principles
of “Objectivism”, the philosophy that holds
that man's life--the life proper to a rational
being--as the standard of moral values.
It regards altruism as incompatible with
man's nature, with the requirements of his
survival, and with a free society.

shrug - To raise (the shoulders), especially as a gesture of doubt, disdain, or
indifference
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The Ethics of Rights



The most influential moral
notion of the past two centuries
Established minimal conditions
of human decency
Human rights: rights that all humans
supposedly possess.

natural rights: some rights are
grounded in the nature rather than in
governments.

moral rights, positive rights,
legal rights, civil rights
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The Ethics of Rights

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
right from nature implies a liberty to
protect myself from attack in any way
that I can.

John Locke (1632-1704)
Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679)
principal natural rights: life, health,
liberty and possessions.
John Locke
(1632-1704)
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Evolutionary Ethics





Human social behavior is an extended development
of biological evolution.
Evolutionary ethics: moral behavior is that which
tends to aid in human survival.
Darwin: Origin of Species focuses on the evolutionary
mechanisms of nonhuman animals.
Biologists and philosophers of nineteenth century
attempted to frame morality as an extension of the
evolutionary biological process.
Problem of the theory: what is progress? What is
good? Any signs of moral improvement since Plato?
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Moral Reason versus Moral Feeling





Morality is strictly a matter of rational
judgment: Samuel Clarke (1675-1729)
Since time of Plato: moral truths exist
in a spiritual realm.
Moral truths like mathematical truths
are eternal.
Morality is strictly a matter of feeling
(emotion): David Hume (1711-1729)
We have a moral sense
Samuel Clarke
(1675-1729)
David Hume
(1711-1729)
30
Ethical Relativism,
Absolutism,
and Pluralism
Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.
Director, The Values Institute
University of San Diego
31
Classical Ethical/Cultural Relativism
The Greek Skeptics (1)

Xenophanes (570-475 BCE)
“Ethiopians say that their gods are flat-nosed and dark,
Thracians that theirs are blue-eyed and red-haired. If
oxen and horses and lions had hands and were able to
draw with their hands and do the same things as men,
horses would draw the shapes of gods to look like
horses and oxen to look like ox, and each would make
the god’s bodies have the same shape as they
themselves had.”

The historian Heroditus(484-425 BCE)
“Everyone without exception believes his own native
customs, and the religion he was brought up in, to be
the best.”
32
Classical Ethical/Cultural Relativism
The Greek Skeptics (2)

Sextus Empiricus (fl. 200 CE)
Gives example after example of moral standards that
differ from one society to another, such as attitudes
about homosexuality, incest, cannibalism, human
sacrifice, the killing of elderly, infanticide, theft,
consumption of animal flesh…
Sextus Empiricus concludes that we should doubt the
existence of an independent and universal standard of
morality, and instead regard moral values as the result
of cultural preferences.
33
Later Ethical Relativism (1)

French philosopher Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592):
Custom has the power to shape every possible kind of
cultural practice. Although we pretend that morality is a
fixed feature of nature, morality too is formed through
custom.

Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776)
“fashion, vogue, custom, and law are the chief
foundation of all moral determinations”
34
Later Ethical Relativism (2)

The fact of moral diversity

We should not pass judgment on practices in
other cultures when we don’t understand
them

Sometimes reasonable people may differ on
what’s morally acceptable
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Insights of Ethical Relativism
Ethical relativism has several important insights:
 The fact of moral diversity
 The need for tolerance and understanding
 We should not pass judgment on practices in
other cultures when we don’t understand
them
 Sometimes reasonable people may differ on
what’s morally acceptable
36
Ethical Relativism: Limitations

Presupposes an epistemological solipsism*

Is unhelpful in dealing with overlaps of
cultures--precisely where we need help.
– Commerce and trade
– Media
– World Wide Web
[*Solipsism - belief in self as only reality: the belief
that the only thing somebody can be sure of is that he
or she exists, and that true knowledge of anything
else is impossible]
37
Ethical Relativism:
Overlapping Cultures, 1


Ethical relativism
suggests that we let
each culture live as
it sees fit.
This is only feasible
when cultures don’t
have to interact with
one another.
38
Ethical Relativism:
Overlapping Cultures, 2

The challenge of the
coming century is
precisely overlapping
cultures:
– Multinational corporations
– International media--BBC,
MTV, CNN
– International sports-Olympics
– World Wide Web
39
Ethical Relativism:
Overlapping Cultures, 3

The actual situation
in today’s world is
much closer to the
diagram at the right.
40
Ethical Relativism:
Our Global Village, 5

What if our world was a village
of 100 people?
– 58 would be Asians, 15 Europeans, 13 would come from
the Western Hemisphere, 12 would be Africans
– 70 would be non-white
– 67 would be non-Christian (33 Christians; 18 Moslems; 14
Hindus; 6 Buddhists; 5 atheists; 3 Jews; 24 other.)
– 16 would speak Chinese; 8 English; 8 Hindi; 6 Spanish; 6
Russian; and 5 Arabic.
– 50 % of the wealth would be held by 6 people.
– 70 could not read and
– only one would have a university education.
http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/103/3areaoutline.htm
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Ethical Relativism:
A Self-Defensive Position
Ethical relativism maintains that we
cannot make moral judgments about
other cultures
 The corollary of this is that we are
protected in principle against the
judgments made by other cultures

42
How Much Dressed? Naked?
Rembrandt
Monk Reading, 1661
Fencer – protective suit
Apollo Belvedere 320 BCE
Taliban law requires women in
Afghanistan to wear a chador or
burqa that covers the face and
entire body.
A proper dress?
Amazonian
indigenous woman
with child
From the solitude of the
Holy Cross Abbey in
Virginia, a monk works
on the Internet,
21th century
Nuns uniforms
43
How Much Dressed? Naked?
Dieric Bouts - Madonna and Child
Leonardo da Vinci
Lady with an Ermine 1483-90
Holbein’s Family 1528
44
Arguments Against Ethical
Relativism

There Are Some Universals in Codes
of Behavior across Cultures
Three core common values:
– caring for children
– truth telling (trust) and
– prohibitions against murder
The society must guard against killing,
abusing the young, lying etc. that are at its
own peril. Were the society not to establish
some rules against such behaviors, the
society itself would cease to exist.
45
Ethical Objectivism


The view that moral principles have
objective validity whether or not
people recognize them as such, that
is, moral rightness or wrongness does
not depend on social approval, but on
such independent considerations as
whether the act or principle promotes
human flourishing or ameliorates
human suffering.
What is moral depends on the fabric
of human nature.
Plato (427-347 BCE)
Immanuel Kant
1724-1804
46
Ethical Absolutism/Universalism

Ethical Absolutism:
Morality is eternal and unchanging and holds for all
rational beings at all times and places. In other
words, moral right and wrong are fundamentally the
same for all people. (Morality is considered different
than mere etiquette).
There is only one correct answer to every moral
problem. A completely absolutist ethic consists of
absolute principles that provide an answer for every
possible situation in life, regardless of culture.
47
Ethical Absolutism



Absolutism comes in many
versions--including the
divine right of kings
Absolutism is less about
what we believe and more
about how we believe it
Common elements:
– There is a single Truth
– Their position embodies that
truth
Louis XIV
(1638 – 1715)
Louis the Great, The Sun King
48
Ethical Absolutism

Ethical absolutism gets some things right
– We need to make judgments
– Certain things are intolerable

But it gets some things wrong, including:
– Our truth is the truth
– We can’t learn from others
49
Ethical Pluralism (1)

Combines insights of both relativism and
absolutism:
– The central challenge: how to live together with
differing and conflicting values
– Fallibilism: recognizes that we might be mistaken
– Sees disagreement as a possible strength
50
Ethical Pluralism (2)

Moral pluralists maintain that there are moral
truths, but they do not form a body of
coherent and consistent truths in the way that
one finds in the science or mathematics.
Moral truths are real, but partial. Moreover,
they are inescapably plural. There are many
moral truths, not just one–and they may
conflict with one another.
51
Ethical Pluralism (3)
Pluralism is the cultural manifestation of
ethical individualism; it is implied by the
respect for the human being, for what it
means to be human.
 We have differing moral perspectives,
but we must often inhabit a common
world.

52
Ethical Pluralism (4)
Ethical pluralism offers three categories to
describe actions:
 Prohibited: those actions which are not seen
as permissible at all
– Absolutism sees the importance of this

Tolerated: those actions and values in which
legitimate differences are possible
– Relativism sees the importance of this

Ideal: a moral vision of what the ideal society
would be like
53
Ethical Pluralism (5)

For each action or
policy, we can place
it in one of three
regions:
– Ideal--Center
– Permitted--Middle
• Respected
• Tolerated
– Prohibited--Outside
54
Five Questions
What is the present state?
 What is the ideal state?
 What is the minimally acceptable state?
 How do we get from the present to the
minimally acceptable state?
 How do we get from the minimum to the
ideal state?

55
Immanuel Kant
THE ETHICS OF DUTY
(Deontological* Ethics)
* ‘deon’ = duty
56
Living by Rules


Most of us live by rules much of
the time.
Some of these are what Kant
called Categorical Imperatives.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
57
Categorical Imperatives

Always act in such a way that the maxim of your
action can be willed as a universal law of humanity.
--Immanuel Kant
58
The Ethics of Respect (1)
One of Kant’s most lasting
contributions to moral philosophy was his
emphasis on the notion of respect
(Achtung).
59
The Ethics of Respect (2)

Respect has become a fundamental
moral concept in contemporary West
– There are rituals of respect in almost all
cultures.

Two central questions:
– What is respect?
– Who or what is the proper object of
respect?
60
Kant on Respect
“Act in such a way that you always treat
humanity, whether in your own person or
in the person of any other, never simply as
a means, but always at the same time as
an end.”
61
Kant on Respecting Persons



Kant brought the notion of respect
(Achtung) to the center of moral
philosophy for the first time.
To respect people is to treat them as ends
in themselves. He sees people as
autonomous, i.e., as giving the moral law
to themselves.
The opposite of respecting people is
treating them as mere means to an end.
62
Using People as Mere Means

The Tuskegee Syphilis
Experiments
– More than four hundred
African American men
infected with syphilis went
untreated for four decades
in a project the
government called the
Tuskegee Study of
Untreated Syphilis in the
Negro Male.
– Continued until 1972
63
Treating People as Ends in
Themselves
What are the characteristics of treating
people as ends in themselves?
 Not denying them relevant
information
 Allowing them freedom of choice
64
Additional Cases
Plant Closing
 Firing Long-Time Employees
 Medical Experimentation on
Prisoners
 Medical Donations by Prisoners
 Medical Consent Forms

65
What Is the Proper Object of
Respect?


For Kant, the proper object of respect is
the will. Hence, respecting a person
involves issues related to the will-knowledge and freedom.
Other possible objects of respect:
–
–
–
–
Feelings and emotions
The dead
Animals
The natural world
66
Self-Respect

Is lack of proper self-respect a moral
failing?

The Deferential* Wife
– See article by Tom Hill, “Servility and SelfRespect”
*Deferential = Respectful, considerate
67
Self-Respect

Aristotle and Self-Love
– What is the difference between self-respect
and self-love? Clearly, there is at least a
difference in the affective element.
68
The Kantian Heritage
What Kant Helped Us to See
Clearly

The Admirable Side of Acting from Duty
– The person of duty remains committed, not
matter how difficult things become.

The Evenhandedness of Morality
– Kantian morality does not play favorites.

Respecting Other People
– The notion of treating people as ends in
themselves is central to much of modern
ethics.
69
The Kantian Heritage
Critique of Kant´s Deontology

The Neglect of Moral Integration
– The person of duty can have deep and
conflicting inclinations and this does
not decrease moral worth—indeed, it
seems to increase it in Kant’s eyes.

The Role of Emotions
– For Kant, the emotions are always
suspect because they are changeable.
70
The Kantian Heritage
Critique of Kant´s Deontology

The Place of Consequences in the
Moral Life
– In order to protect the moral life from
the changing of moral luck, Kant held a
very strong position that refused to
attach moral blame to individuals who
were acting with good will, even though
some indirect bad consequences could
be foreseen.
71
The Kantian Heritage
Conclusion
Overall, after two hundred years, Kant
remains an absolutely central figure
in contemporary moral philosophy,
one from whom we can learn much
even when we disagree with him.
72
Utilitarianism
73
Basic Insights of Utilitarianism

The purpose of morality is to make
the world a better place.

We should do whatever will bring the
most benefit to all of humanity.
74
The Purpose of Morality

The utilitarian has a simple answer to
the question of why morality exists at
all:
– The purpose of morality is to guide
people’s actions in such a way as to
produce a better world.

Consequently, the emphasis in
utilitarianism is on consequences, not
intentions.
(At times, the road to hell is pawed with good intentions)
75
Fundamental Imperative

The fundamental imperative of
utilitarianism is:
Always act in the way that will produce
the greatest overall amount of good in
the world.
76
The Emphasis on the Overall
Good

Utilitarianism is a demanding moral
position that often asks us to put
aside self-interest for the sake of the
whole.
– It always asks us to do the most, to
maximize utility, not to do the minimum.
– It asks us to set aside personal interest.
77
The Dream of Utilitarianism:
Bringing Scientific Certainty to
Ethics

Utilitarianism offers a powerful vision of
the moral life, one that promises to reduce
or eliminate moral disagreement.
– If we can agree that the purpose of
morality is to make the world a better
place; and
– If we can scientifically assess various
possible courses of action to determine
which will have the greatest positive
effect on the world; then
– We can provide a scientific answer to
the question of what we ought to do. 78
Standards of Utility:
Intrinsic Value



Many things have instrumental value, that
is, they have value as means to an end.
However, there must be some things
which are not merely instrumental, but
have value in themselves. This is what we
call intrinsic value.
What has intrinsic value? Four principal
candidates:
–
–
–
–
Pleasure - Jeremy Bentham
Happiness - John Stuart Mill
Ideals - George Edward Moore
Preferences - Kenneth Arrow
79
Jeremy Bentham
1748-1832

Bentham believed that
we should try to
increase the overall
amount of pleasure in
the world.
80
Pleasure


Definition: The
enjoyable feeling we
experience when a
state of deprivation
is replaced by
fulfillment.
Advantages
– Easy to quantify
– Short duration
– Bodily

Criticisms
– Came to be known
as “the pig’s
philosophy”
– Ignores spiritual
values
– Could justify living
on a pleasure
machine or “happy
pill”
81
John Stuart Mill
1806-1873


Bentham’s godson
Believed that
happiness, not
pleasure, should be the
standard of utility.
82
Happiness

Advantages
– A higher standard,
more specific to
humans
– About realization of
goals

Disadvantages
– More difficult to
measure
– Competing
conceptions of
happiness
83
Ideal Values



G. E. Moore suggested that we
should strive to maximize ideal
values such as freedom,
knowledge, justice, and
beauty.
The world may not be a better
place with more pleasure in it,
but it certainly will be a better
place with more freedom, more
knowledge, more justice, and
more beauty.
Moore’s candidates for
intrinsic good remain difficult
to quantify.
G. E. Moore
1873-1958
84
Preferences

Kenneth Arrow, a Nobel Prize
winning Stanford economist,
argued that what has intrinsic
value is preference satisfaction.

The advantage of Arrow’s
approach is that, in effect, it lets
people choose for themselves
what has intrinsic value.
It simply defines intrinsic value
as whatever satisfies an agent’s
preferences. It is elegant and
pluralistic.
KENNETH J. ARROW
Stanford University
Professor of Economics (Emeritus)
85
May this help? Lets make everyone
happy!
Happy pill as a universal solution?
86
The Utilitarian Calculus


Math and ethics finally
merged: all consequences
must be measured and
weighed!
Units of measurement:
– Hedons: positive
– Dolors: negative
87
What do we calculate?

Hedons/dolors defined in terms of
– Pleasure
– Happiness
– Ideals
– Preferences
88
What do we calculate?

For any given action, we must
calculate:
– How many people will be affected,
negatively (dolors) as well as positively
(hedons)
– How intensely they will be affected
– Similar calculations for all available
alternatives
– Choose the action that produces the
greatest overall amount of utility
89
(hedons minus dolors)
How much can we quantify?
Pleasure and preference satisfaction
are easier to quantify than happiness or
ideals
 Two distinct issues:

– Can everything be quantified?
The danger: if it can’t be counted, it doesn’t
count.
– Are quantified goods necessarily
commensurable?
Are a fine dinner and a good night’s sleep
commensurable?
90
“…the problems of three little people don’t
amount to a hill of beans in this crazy
world.”
Utilitarianism doesn’t
always have a cold
and calculating face—
we perform utilitarian
calculations in
everyday life.
91
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
1. Responsibility


Utilitarianism suggests that we are
responsible for all the consequences of
our choices.
The problem is that sometimes we can not
foresee consequences of other people’s
actions that are taken in response to our
own acts. Are we responsible for those
actions, even though we don’t choose
them or approve of them?
92
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
2. Integrity
Utilitarianism often demands that we
put aside self-interest. Sometimes
this may mean putting aside our own
moral convictions.
 Integrity may involve certain identityconferring commitments, such that
the violation of those commitments
entails a violation of who we are at
our core.
93

Criticisms of Utilitarianism
3. Intentions

Utilitarianism is concerned almost
exclusively about consequences, not
intentions.
– There is a version of utilitarianism
called “motive utilitarianism,”
developed by Robert Adams, that
attempts to correct this.
94
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
4. Moral Luck

By concentrating exclusively on
consequences, utilitarianism makes
the moral worth of our actions a
matter of luck. We must await the
final consequences before we find out
if our action was good or bad.

This seems to make the moral life a
matter of chance, which runs counter
to our basic moral intuitions.
95
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
5. Who does the calculating?

Historically, this was an issue for the
British in India. The British felt they
wanted to do what was best for India, but
that they were the ones to judge what that
was.
– See Ragavan Iyer, Utilitarianism and All That

Typically, the count differs depending on
who does the counting
96
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
6. Who is included?

When we consider the issue of
consequences, we must ask who is
included within that circle.

Classical utilitarianism has often claimed
that we should acknowledge the pain and
suffering of animals and not restrict the
calculus just to human beings.
97
Concluding Assessment

Utilitarianism is most appropriate for policy
decisions, as long as a strong notion of
fundamental human rights guarantees that it will
not violate rights of minorities, otherwise it is
possible to use to justify outvoting minorities.
98
Rights
99
Rights:
Changing Western History

Many of the great documents of the
last two centuries have centered
around the notion of rights.
– The Bill of Rights
– The Declaration of the Rights of Man
and Citizen
– The United Nation Declaration of Human
Rights
100
Human Rights
After the King John of England
violated a number of ancient laws
and customs by which England had
been governed, his subjects forced
him to sign the Magna Carta, or
Great Charter, which enumerates
what later came to be thought of as
human rights.
101
Human Rights
Among rights of Magna Carta were the right
of the church to be free from
governmental interference, the rights of all
free citizens to own and inherit property
and be free from excessive taxes. It
established the right of widows who
owned property to choose not to remarry,
and established principles of due process
and equality before the law. It also
contained provisions forbidding bribery
and official misconduct.
102
Rights:
A Base for Moral Change

Many of the great movements
of this century have centered
around the notion of rights.
– The Civil Rights Movement
– Equal rights for women
– Movements for the rights of
indigenous peoples
– Children’s rights
– Gay rights
103
Justifications for Rights
Self-evidence
 Divine
Foundation
 Natural Law
 Human Nature

104
Self-evidence

“We hold these Truths to be selfevident, that all Men are created equal,
that they are endowed by their Creator
with certain unalienable Rights, that
among these are Life, Liberty and the
Pursuit of Happiness.”
Declaration of Independence
July 4, 1776
105
Divine Foundation

“We have granted to God, and by
this our present Charter have
confirmed, for us and our Heirs
for ever, That the Church of
England shall be free, and shall
have her whole rights and liberties
inviolable. We have granted also,
and given to all the freemen of our
realm, for us and our Heirs for
ever, these liberties underwritten,
to have and to hold to them and
their Heirs, of us and our Heirs for
ever.”
The Magna Carta, 1297
106
Universal Declaration of Human
Rights
Article 1.
 All human beings are born free and
equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and
conscience and should act towards
one another in a spirit of
brotherhood.

http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html
107
Rights-related Questions
Freedom of Speech
 Death Penalty
 The Disappeared
 Economic & Social Rights
 Terrorism & Anti-Terrorism
 Corruption

108
Natural Law

According to natural law ethical
theory, the moral standards that
govern human behavior are, in
some sense, objectively derived
from the nature of human beings.
109
Natural Law
Human Nature
 Arguments
for natural rights
that appeal to human nature
involve the following steps:
– Establish that some characteristic of
human nature, such as the ability to
make free choices, is essential to
human life.
110
Natural Law
Human Nature
– Establish that certain empirical
conditions, such as the absence of
physical constraints, are necessary
for the existence or the exercise of
that characteristic;
– Conclude that people have a right to
those empirical conditions.
111
Two Concepts of Rights
The distinction depends on the
obligation that is placed on those
who must respect your rights.
 Negative Rights

– Obliges others not to interfere with your
exercise of the right.

Positive Rights
– Obligates others to provide you with positive
assistance in the exercise of that right.
112
Negative Rights

Negative rights simply impose on
others the duty not to interfere with
your rights.
– The right to life, construed as a negative
right, obliges others not to kill you.
– The right to free speech, construed as a
negative right, obliges others not to
interfere with your free speech
113
Positive Rights

Positive rights impose on others a
specific obligation to do something
to assist you in the exercise of your
right
– The right to life, construed as a positive right,
obliges others to provide you with the basics
necessary to sustain life if you are unable to
provide these for yourself
– The right to free speech, construed as a
positive right, obligates others to provide you
with the necessary conditions for your free
speech--e.g., air time, newspaper space, etc.
– Welfare rights are typically construed as
114
Positive Rights:
Critique

Who is obligated to provide positive
assistance?
– People in general
– Each of us individually
– The state (government)
115
The Limitations of Rights Concept

Rights, Community, and
Individualism

Rights and Close Relationships
116
The Limitations of Rights Concept
Contradicting rights: Athos and
Women
Greek public community is indignant
at the decision recently taken by the
Dutch court and at the resolution of
European parliament.
 In January, a Greek law that allows
monks from the Athos Monastery not
to let women to the Holy Mount was
officially declared in court as
contradicting human rights.
117

The Limitations of Rights Concept
Contradicting rights: Athos and
Women
An official response to the declaration
was immediate: governmental
spokesman told European human
rights activists that the right of the
Athos monastery republic not to let
women to the Holy Mount was
confirmed in the treaty of Greece-s
incorporation into the European
Union.
118
Concluding Evaluation

Rights do not tell the whole story of
ethics, especially in the area of
personal relationships.

Rights are always defined for groups
of people (humanity, women,
indigenous people, workers etc).
119
Personal Integrity vs Public Safety
120
Justice
121
Introduction

All of us have been the recipients of
demands of justice.
– My 6 year old daughter protesting,
“Daddy, it’s not fair for you to get a
cookie at night and I don’t.”

All of us have also been in the
position of demanding justice.
– I told the builder of my house that, since
he replaced defective windows for a
neighbor, he should replace my
defective windows.
122
Conceptions of Justice

Distributive Justice
– Benefits and burdens

Compensatory/Recompensatory
Justice
– Criminal justice
123
Distributive Justice

The central question of distributive
justice is the question of how the
benefits and burdens of our lives are
to be distributed.
– Justice involves giving each person his
or her due.
– Equals are to be treated equally.
124
Goods Subject to Distribution

What is to be distributed?
– Income
– Wealth
– Opportunities
125
Subjects of Distribution

To whom are good to be distributed?
– Individual persons
– Groups of persons
– Classes
126
Basis for Distribution

On what basis should goods be
distributed?
– Equality
– Individual needs or desires
– Free market transactions
– Ability to make best use of the goods
127
Strict Egalitarianism
Basic principle: every person should
have the same level of material
goods and services
 Criticisms

– Unduly restricts individual freedom
– May conflict with what people deserve
128
The Difference Principle
More wealth may be produced in a
system where those who are more
productive earn greater incomes.
 Strict egalitarianism may discourage
maximal production of wealth.

129
Welfare-Based Approaches

Seeks to maximize well-being of
society as a whole
130
Desert*-Based Approaches

Distributive systems are just
insofar as they distribute incomes
according to the different levels
earned or deserved by the
individuals in the society for their
productive labors, efforts or
contributions. (Feinberg)
*desert - förtjänst; förtjänt lön, vedergällning
according to one's deserts efter förtjänst
131
Desert*-Based Approaches

Distribution is based on:
– Actual contribution to the social
product
– Effort one expend in work activity
– Compensation to the costs
Seeks to raise the overall standard of
living by rewarding effort and
achievement
 May be applied only to working
adults
132

Try to run “Wealth Distribution”, a model that simulates
the distribution of wealth.
http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/WealthDistrib
ution
133
The Ethics of Character:
Virtues and Vices
134
Introduction
Concern for character
has flourished in the
West since the time of
Plato, whose early
dialogues explored
such virtues as
courage and piety*.
* fromhet
Plato (by Michaelangelo)
135
Two Moral Questions

The Question of Action:
– How ought I to act?

The Question of Character
– What kind of person ought I to be?

Our concern here is with the question of
character
136
An Analogy from the Criminal
Justice System
• As a country, we place our trust for just decisions
in the legal arena in two places:
– Laws, which provide the necessary rules
– People, who (as judge and jury) apply rules judiciously
• Similarly, ethics places its trust in:
– Theories, which provide rules for conduct
– Virtue, which provides the wisdom necessary for
applying rules in particular instances
137
Virtue





Strength of character
(habit)
Involving both feeling,
knowing and action
Seeks the mean
between excess and
deficiency relative to us
Dynamic balance
Secure desirable
behavior
Aristotle (by Michaelangelo)
138
The Seven Essential Virtues
Defining “Moral IQ”
Empathy
 Conscience
 Self-Control
 Respect
 Tolerance
 Fairness
 Kindness

Wisdom*
 Courage*
 Temperance*
 Justice*
 Integrity
 Responsibility
 Honesty

139
*Aristotles cardinal virtues
Virtues (1)
Sphere of
Existence
Deficiency
Attitude toward Servility
self
Self-deprecation
Attitude toward
offenses of
others
Attitude toward
good
deeds of
others
Ignoring them
Being a Doormat
Suspicion
Envy
Ignoring them
Mean
Excess
Arrogance
Proper Self-Love Conceit
Proper Pride
Egoism
Self-Respect
Narcissism
Vanity
Anger
Revenge
Forgiveness
Grudge
Understanding
Resentment
Gratitude
Admiration
Regret,
Attitude toward Indifference
Remorse
Remorselessness
our
Making Amends
own offenses
Downplaying
Self-Forgiveness
Attitude toward
Indifference
Loyalty
our friends
Over
indebtedness
Toxic Guilt
Scrupulosity
Shame
Obsequiousness
140
Virtues (2)
Sphere of
Existence
Deficiency
Attitude toward
our
own good deeds
Sense of
Belittling
Accomplishment
Disappointment
Humility
Selfrighteousness
Attitude toward
the
suffering of
others
Callousness
Compassion
Pity
“Bleeding
Heart”
Attitude toward
the
achievements of
others
Selfsatisfaction
Complacency
Competition
Admiration
Emulation
Envy
Cowardice
Courage
Foolhardiness
Anhedonia
Temperance
Moderation
Lust
Gluttony
Exploitation
Respect
Deferentiality
Attitude toward
death
and danger
Attitude toward
our
own desires
Attitude toward
other people
Mean
Excess
141
Two Concepts of Morality

In a simplified scheme, we can contrast two
approaches to the morality.
– Restrictive concept:
• Child vs. adult
• Comes from outside (usually parents).
• “Don’t touch that stove burner!”
• Rules and habit formation are central.
– Affirmative concept:
• Adult vs. adult
• Comes from within (self-directed).
• “This is the kind of person I want to be”
• Virtue-centered, often modeled on ideals.
142
Rightly-ordered Desires and the
Goals of Moral Education


Moral education may initially seek to control unruly
desires through rules, the formation of habits, etc.
Ultimately, moral education aims at forming and
cultivating virtuous conduct.
143
Virtue As the Golden Mean


Strength of character (virtue), Aristotle suggests,
involves finding the proper balance between two
extremes.
– Excess: having too much of something.
– Deficiency: having too little of something.
Not mediocrity, but harmony and balance.
144
Virtue and Habit


For Aristotle, virtue is something that is practiced and
thereby learned—it is habit (hexis).
This has clear implications for moral education, for
Aristotle obviously thinks that you can teach people
to be virtuous.
145
Egoism
146
Two Types of Egoism

Two types of egoism:
– Psychological egoism
• Asserts that as a matter of fact we do always act selfishly
• Purely descriptive
– Ethical egoism
• Maintains that we should always act selfishly
147
What does it mean to be selfish?

If we are selfish, do we only
do things that are in our
genuine self-interest?
– What about the chain smoker? Is
this person acting out of genuine
self-interest?
– In fact, the smoker may be acting
selfishly (doing what he wants
without regard to others) but not
self-interestedly (doing what will
ultimately benefit him).
148
What does it mean to be selfish?


If we are selfish, do we only do
things we believe are in our selfinterest?
– What about those who believe
that sometimes they act
altruistically?
– Does anyone truly believe
Mother Theresa was completely
selfish?
Think of the actions of parents.
Don’t parents sometimes act for
the sake of their children, even
when it is against their narrow
self-interest to do so?
Mother Theresa (1910-1997)
149
Re-conceptualizing Psychological
Egoism
In addition to having two independent axes, we must
distinguish between the intentions of actions and their
consequences. Thus we get two graphs:
Not
intended
to benefit
self
Intentions
Consequences
Strongly intended to help others
High beneficial To others
Strongly
intended
to benefit
self
Strongly intended to harm others
Highly
harmful
to self
Highly
beneficial
to self
Highly harmful to others
150
Ethical Egoism
151
Ethical Egoism

Selfishness is extolled as a virtue
– Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness


May appeal to psychological egoism
as a foundation
Often very compelling for high
school students
Ayn Rand (1905-1982).
(born Alice Rosenbaum)
152
Versions of Ethical Egoism

Personal Ethical Egoism
– “I am going to act only in my own interest, and
everyone else can do whatever they want.”

Individual Ethical Egoism
– “Everyone should act in my own interest.”

Universal Ethical Egoism
– “Each individual should act in his or her own
self interest.”
153
Altruism
Unselfish concern for the welfare of
others; selflessness, charity,
generosity.
 Zoology. Instinctive cooperative
behavior that is detrimental (harmful)
to the individual but contributes to
the survival of the species.

154
Universalizing Ethical Egoism

Can the ethical egoist consistently will
that everyone else follow the tenets of
ethical egoism?
– It seems to be in one’s self-interest to be
selfish oneself and yet get everyone else to act
altruistically (especially if they act for your
benefit). This leads to individual ethical
egoism.

Some philosophers such as Jesse Kalin
have argued that in sports we consistently
universalize ethical egoism: we intend to
win, but we want our opponents to try as
hard as they can!
155
Egoism, Altruism, and
the Ideal World
Aristotle



Ideally, we seek a society in
which self-interest and regard
for others converge—the green
zone.
Egoism at the expense of
others and altruism at the
expense of self-interest both
create worlds in which
goodness and self-regard are
mutually exclusive—the yellow
zone.
No one want the red zone,
which is against both selfinterest and regard for others.
Tocqueville’s
“Self-interest rightly understood”
High
Altruism
Kant
Self-sacrificing
altruism
Low
Egoism
Not beneficial
either to self
or others
Drug addiction
Alcoholism, etc.
Self-interest
and regard
for others
converge
High
Egoism
Self-interest
at the expense
of others
Low
Altruism
Hobbes’s
State of Nature,
Nietzsche?
156
Sinking Titanic: Egoism vs. Altruism
(Even risks in technical systems)
157
Moral Reasoning and
Gender
The Kohlberg-Gilligan Debate and
Beyond
158
Le Deuxième Sexe - The Second Sex
Simone de Beauvoir 1949

Woman as Other
– “For a long time I have
hesitated to write a book on
woman. The subject is
irritating, especially to
women; and it is not new.
Enough ink has been spilled
in quarrelling …”
Simone de Beauvoir
http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/beav.htm
159
Lawrence Kohlberg


American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
(Harvard) studied under Swiss psychologist
and philosopher Jean Piaget (1965), who had
developmental approach to learning. Kohlberg
extended the approach to stages of moral
reasoning.
Using surveys, Kohlberg presented his
subjects with moral dilemmas and asked them
to evaluate the moral conflict. He was able to
prove that youth at various ages, as youth
proceed to adulthood, they are able to
progress up the moral development stages
presented,
Lawrence Kohlberg
(1927 - 1987)
160
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
LEVEL
STAGE
1
Obedience and Punishment
2
Individualism, Instrumentalism, and
Exchange
3
"Good boy/girl"
4
Law and Order
5
Social Contract
6
Principled Conscience
Pre-conventional
Conventional
Post-conventional
SOCIAL ORIENTATION
161
Gender and Kohlberg’s scale

Women are more likely to base their
explanations for moral dilemmas on concepts
such as caring and personal relationships.
These concepts are likely to be scored at the
stage three level. Men, on the other hand, are
more likely to base their decisions for moral
dilemmas on social contract or justice and
equity. Those concepts are likely to be scored
at stage five or six.
162
Carol Gilligan


University Professor of
Gender Studies,
Harvard University (1997present)
In a Different Voice:
Psychological Theory and
Women's Development,
book 1982.
Carol Gilligan,
1936 - present
163
How do we understand Gilligan’s
claims?
Plato: Meno
SOCRATES: (…) By the gods, Meno, be generous, and
tell me what you say that virtue is; (…)
MENO: (…) Let us take first the virtue of a man--he
should know how to administer the state, and in the
administration of it to benefit his friends and harm his
enemies; and he must also be careful not to suffer
harm himself. A woman's virtue, if you wish to know
about that, may also be easily described: her duty is
to order her house, and keep what is indoors, and
obey her husband. Every age, every condition of life,
young or old, male or female, bond or free, has a
different virtue (…)
164
How do we understand Gilligan’s
claims?


With the advent of industrial revolution, and
welfare state where all children are given
education, and physical strength has no
dominant role, women have entered the
public sphere traditionally dominated by
males.
Female professionals have encountered a
culture that was historically male territory. It
caused cultural shock.
165
How do we interpret Gilligan’s
claims?
Four possible positions about female
vs. male moral voices:
 Separate but equal
 Superiority thesis
 Integrationist thesis
 Diversity thesis
166
The Diversity Thesis
– Suggests that there are different moral
voices
– Sees this as a source of richness and
growth in the moral life
– External diversity
• Different individuals have different, sex-based moral
voices
• Males with female voices and females with male voices
are admitted
– Internal diversity
• Each of us have both masculine and feminine moral
voices within us
• Minimizes gender stereotyping
167
Conclusion
“The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)


Kohlberg – Gilligan controversy is but a
beginning of a long process of re-thinking
position of women in a post-modern society.
The end of industrialist era and the
emergency of new information technology
results in conditions that even more favor
female professionals.
168
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
169
The Earth
"We have not inherited the Earth from
our fathers. We are borrowing it from
our children."
Native American saying
170
Environmental Ethics and Philosophy
Are There Universal Ethical Principles?




Universalists: Plato, Kant believe that fundamental
principles of ethics are universal, unchanging and
eternal
Relativists: Sophists- everything contextual. Believe
that moral principles are always relative to a
particular person
Nihilists: Schopenhauer- arbitrary survival. Claim
that the world makes no sense at all and that
everything is completely arbitrary
Utilitarians: Bentham - greatest good for greatest
number of people
171
Values, Rights, and Obligations




Moral agents. Some philosophers believe
that only humans are moral agents
Moral subjects. Children are considered
moral subjects not moral agents
Inherent, instrumental value
Non-living things, do they have value?
172
Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
Individual beliefs towards ecology
depend on ethical perspectives
 Most people have set of core values or
beliefs
 Environmental concerns are a source
for comparisons among different values
and perceptions

173
Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
Domination


Interpretation of some religious values has
lead in past to anthropocentric (humancentered) ecological principles which believe
that humans are the focus of creation
Current movement in religious organizations
to fight for ecological concerns
174
Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
Stewardship

Responsibility to manage our
ecosystem. To work together with
human and non-human forces to
sustain life
175
Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
Biocentrism (life-centered), Animal Rights, and
Ecocentrism (ecologically-centered)



Biocentrism: biodiversity is the highest ethical value
in nature
Animal rights supporters focus on the individual
Ecocentrism: whole is more important than individual
animal
Ecofeminism


Warren, Shiva, Merchant, Ruether, and King
A network of personal relationships
176
Worldviews and ethical perspectives
A comparison
Philosophy
Intrinsic Value
Instrumental Value
Role of humans
Anthropocentric
Humans
Nature
Masters
Stewardship
Humans & Nature
Tools
Caretakers
Biocentric
Species
Abiotic nature
One of many
Animal rights
Individuals
Processes
Equals
Ecocentric
Processes
Individuals
Destroyers
Ecofeminist
Relationships
Roles
Caregivers
177
Environmental Justice
Combination of civil rights and
environmental protection that demands
a safe, healthy life-giving environment
for everyone
 Most people of low socio-economic
position are exposed to high pollution
levels

178
Environmental Racism


Unequal distribution of hazardous waste based on
race
Black children 2-3 times more likely to have lead
poisoning
Dumping Across Borders



Toxic colonialism: targeting third/fourth world
countries for waste disposal
Polluting industries move to poor countries
Environmental Justice Act (1992)
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180
Science as a Way of Knowing
A Faustian Bargain?
Technology can create power to save
and destroy life
 Dr. Faustus sold his soul to the devil in
exchange for power and wealth (youth)

181
Management Theory and the
Environment

Anthropocentric Theories
– Ethics
– Economic
– Corporate Social
Responsibility
• Stakeholder
• Normative
• Social Contract

Green Management Theories
–
–
–
–
Ecocentricism
Adjusted Stakeholder
Sustainablity
Resource Based Theory
182
Global Environmental Ethics
183
Environmental Ethics and Business


Western Society - Objectifies Nature
– Locke - “Something in a state of nature has
no economic value and is of no utility to the
human race”
Ethics - a concern with actions and practices
directed to improving the welfare of people.
184
Economic Fundamentalism and
Ethics
The corporate social responsibility of a business
is to increase profit. - M. Friedman



Those things that cannot be traded on the
market have no value.
Where does the environment fit in these
definitions for environmental ethics?
Will people and corporations do
environmentally responsible things on their
own? What happens if they do?
185
Corporate Social Responsibility
By doing socially responsible things,
businesses better human life.
 Hopefully ..good ethics is good
business.

Is this true?
 Is enlightened self interest a good way?

186
Incorporating Environment into
Management

Environmental Ethics is a starting point
– Expanding ethics to include nature.
– What is the difficulty in doing this?
– What does the Biocentric ethic say (Goodpaster?)

Biocentrism
– Natural objects have intrinsic value and morally
considerable in their own right.
– Deep Ecology nature has an ethical status at least
equal to humans.
187
Green Management

Ecocentricism views industrial relationships in
a cycle, and a whole set of philosophies.
How radical is this?

Sustaincentric - going beyond sustainability of
“development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their needs.
– Human and economic relationships inextricably
linked with natural systems.
188
Resource Extraction and Use



Burning of fossil fuels
Destruction of tropical
rainforests and other
biologically rich
landscapes
Production of toxic
wastes
189
Environmental Science
Environment - the
circumstances and
conditions that surround
an organism or a group of
organisms
Environmental science the systematic study of
our environment and our
place in it
190
What ought I to do?
Intention
Action
Consequence
Duty
Deontological Ethics
191
What ought I to do?
Intention
Action
Consequence
Consequentialist Ethics
192
http://www.envirolink.org/
- Agriculture
- Air Quality
- Climate Change
- Ecosystems
- Energy
- Environmental Disasters
- Environmental Economics
- Environmental Education
- Environmental Ethics
- Environmental Legislation and Policy
- Ground Pollution
- Habitat Conservation
- Human Health
- Natural History
- Oceans
- Outdoor Recreation
- Population
- Sustainable Business
- Sustainable Development
- Sustainable Living
- Transportation
- Urban Issues
- Vegetarianism
- Waste Management
- Water Quality
- Wildlife
193
Ethics Contexts
Industry
(Other firms)
Clients
Consumers
Profession
(Societies)
Engineering firm
Family
(Private Sphere)
Engineer
Colleagues
Managers
Global environment
Society/Nature
194
Research Ethics Committee
University of Mälardalen
Ethics committee decision making
Research ethical issues of MDH, advisory committee:
http://www.mdh.se/namnder/fet/lankar/
http://www.mdh.se/namnder/fet/ledamoter.shtml
Decision-making (policy-making) body in Uppsala
http://www.epn.se/
195
What is Professional Ethics?
There are many ways to introduce applied/professional
ethics with different focus:




Pragmatic
Embedded
Theoretical
Emerging Issues
196
Approach 1
Pragmatic
Ethical issues are introduced via a consideration of their
practical consequences. Consequences are defined
in relation to:
•
The framework of rules and procedures defined by
regulatory bodies charged with the task of raising or
maintaining professional standards.
•
Research Ethics Committees and the factors that
influence their deliberations
197
Approach 2
Embedded
Ethical concerns are presented holistically, as an
integral part of some broader area of concern such
as:
•
Fitness for Practice.
•
Professionalism.
The embedded approach places an emphasis on the
sense of professional identity.
198
Approach 3
Theoretical
This approach focuses on the understanding of ethics
theory.
The ethics of life-like situations are presented in terms
of the application of different ethical theories.
199
Emerging Professional Issues
Professional ethics introduces new issues and concerns
by seeking to guide and shape graduate behaviour
as a way of meeting public expectations with regard
to professional conduct and accountability.
200
Professional Ethics Primary Objectives
1.
To help professionals make choices that they can live
with, and by reducing the emotional and psychological
stress caused by moral indecision and confusion.
2.
To ensure that the professional acts in a way that
serves the best interests of society in general and their
service-users in particular.
3.
To ensure that the professionals acts in a way that
serves the best interests of their chosen profession.
201
CRITICISM OF THE
SOURCES
Academic Honesty
202
What is cheating?
Plagiarizing - copying, paraphrasing and
self-plagiarizing
 Unauthorized co-operation
 Joyriding or taking advantage
 Fabrication
 Un-authorized aids

203
Consequences
All suspected cases will be reported to
the disciplinary committee
 The teacher is not allowed to haggle or
punish!
 Warning or suspension from classes
 IDE practice is a zero tolerance against
academic dishonesty

204
Rules






”Individually” means by one single person
Be prepared to describe carefully how you
solved the assignment
The names on the cover are the names of
those who made the assignment
Use references to everything that is not your
own present work!
When in doubt – ask teacher
Read http://www.mdh.se/ide/utbildning/cheating
205
Concluding
Comments
206
Conclusion
“The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)
Complexity of the real world problems –
number of processes go on concurrently
 Ambiguity of theoretical representations
and interpretations
 No absolute truth, but the commitment
to the commonly accepted ”good
enough” ”reasonably good” solutions

207
World seen in different light
What if we could see in any wavelength of the electromagnetic
spectrum, from gamma-rays to radio waves? How would the
world appear to us?
208
Images of the sun
RADIO
INFRARED
ULTRAVIOLET
VISIBLE
X-RAY
209
Images of the moon
RADIO
INFRARED
ULTRAVIOLET
VISIBLE
X-RAY
210
Images of galaxy M81
RADIO
INFRARED
ULTRAVIOLET
VISIBLE
X-RAY
http://hea-www.harvard.edu/CHAMP/EDUCATION/PUBLIC/multiwavelengthphotos_pics.html
211
World as seen in the light of different
models

An example: one country has started war on
the other. What are the possible “optics” we
can use to analyze the problem from the
ethical point of view?

Virtue Ethics
– The leader of one country was very bad character.
Leader of the other was very good. Which one is
which depends usually on the side in the war.
212
World as seen in the light of different
models

Utilitarian Ethics
– The country have to be helped, pacified, civilized.
– The total benefit from the point of view of the one
who sets the rules and counts benefits is obvious.

Rights
– As a rule in a war human rights are violated. If you
focus on that aspect of the problem you may get
the different picture.
213
World as seen in the light of different
models

Duty
– In a war, defending your country/fighting for your
country is seen as a highest duty.

Egoism
– In egoist perspective war can be used to gain
huge benefits.

Feminist ethics
– Feminist claim wars are male business
214
World as seen in the light of different
models

Justice
– The distribution of wealth/natural resources can be
a central issue in a war and so also in ethical
analysis of it.

Divine Command
– Very often a war can be seen as a clash between
different religions. Each side fights with the divine
support. (So it was even in ancient Greece)
215
References

Basic material:
– http://ethics.acusd.edu/presentations/Hinman/theory/relativism/
– http://ethics.acusd.edu/socialethics/
– MORAL PHILOSOPHY THROUGH THE AGES, James Fieser,
Mayfield Publishing Company, 2001

Additional resources:
– http://www.prs.heacademy.ac.uk/projects/ethics/
– http://ethics.acusd.edu/relativism.html
216