Transcript Assessment In Early Childhood Education

CHAPTER 15:
Systemic Approaches to Counseling
Students Experiencing Complex and
Specialized Problems
Transforming The School Counseling
Profession
Fourth Edition
Bradley T. Erford
Introduction
Youth at risk for academic failure and personal/social problems
present a substantial dilemma for schools, families, and
communities.
Professional school counselors must become “coordinators of
interdisciplinary resources” to collaborate and develop
partnerships with community agencies and organizations
providing overlapping services with school personnel.
It is important that professional school counselors help educators
support, rather than blame and punish, youth at risk.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1-2
The Changing Needs of
Students and Families
Rising levels of poverty, substance abuse, and domestic and
community violence are a few of the major problems affecting
mental health during the latter half of the 20th century.
20% of all children and adolescents have significant emotional
impairment requiring treatment, but only 1 out of 5 actually receive
treatment.
Half of all students with emotional problems drop out of school.
Clinical depression afflicts 3-6 million children, contributing to
widespread social and emotional problems, including suicide.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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The Changing Needs of
Students and Families (cont.)
Suicide is the 3rd leading cause of death among American adolescents.
•
More than 2,000 adolescents kill themselves each year.
•
Approximately 10,000-20,000 adolescents attempt suicide annually.
30-50% of school-aged children referred to community mental health
agencies experience conduct problems and behavior disorders.
These problems have been compounded by government funding
procedural changes and shortages of affordable community-based mental
health services.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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The Changing Needs of
Students and Families (cont.)
U.S. reports continue to show increasing numbers of youth who are
alienated and disconnected from the positive aspects and opportunities of
society and have difficult and negative experiences in schools,
communities, and families.
Students with complex problems come from all socioeconomic classes,
ethnic, and racial backgrounds.
Anyone could be exposed to community, school and family violence, family
dysfunction, drugs or alcohol, teenage suicide, or problems with peers.
Through the growing numbers of these youth, it is clear that overall
intervention and prevention strategies have been limited in their success.
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© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Resiliency
Risk factors are characteristics of students that place them at higher risk
of developing mental disorders, academic problems, or personal-social
difficulties.
•
It is important to realize that a single risk factor leads to only a
slight increase in risk, while multiple factors exponentially
increase one’s risk status.
Resilience factors are ordinarily more important to assess, because
resilience involves characteristics that allow an individual to rebound from
adversity, or maintain equilibrium of positive functioning when exposed to
traumatic events or environmental stressors.
Professional school counselors can help students develop increased
resilience or protective factors by helping to build parent, peer and school
support mechanisms.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1-6
Identifying and Categorizing Students With
Complex Problems
There is still ongoing debate and controversy over defining the
population of youth at risk.
There is no framework for one definition that is inclusive enough to
consider all the parameters necessary for a culturally responsive
approach to addressing the needs of children at-risk.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Guidelines Describing Youth At Risk
Youth are considered at risk when they lack familial, community, cultural,
institutional, and societal supports necessary to develop and grow in an
environment that is safe, positive, healthy, and conducive to personal,
social, cultural, intellectual, spiritual, economic, and physical
development.
Healthy growth and development for youth must include the context of
family and other social networks, environment, health and nutrition,
opportunities for spiritual development, and a positive interaction with
the surrounding community, society, and culture within which one lives.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Problems Categorizing
Youth At Risk
Five potential problem areas have been identified.
•
First, when using the term, at-risk, there is a danger of
discounting resiliency.
•
Secondly, the label, “at risk,” has strong negative associations,
which stigmatize youth.
•
Thirdly, many youth are identified as being at risk during
adolescence, leaving the prospect of being at risk no longer a
question, but rather an assured fact.
•
Fourth, the term at-risk has been used as a catch all phrase
that does not differentiate the level of risk one is facing nor the
conditions, causes, or problem behaviors associated with that
risk.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Problems Categorizing Youth At Risk (cont.)
Fifth, there is not a sensitivity or awareness of
cultural differences related to at risk behavior.
These problems contribute to confusion in
characterizing and identifying youth at risk and
are reflected in the lack of effective
programming to reduce problems.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Approaches to Working With Youth With Complex
Problems
Historically the definition of at-risk has been based on one of four approaches
with each having it’s flaws.
•
Predictive - emphasizes what is wrong or missing in the student.
•
Descriptive - focuses on “after-the-fact” reporting.
•
The unilateral technique states that all students are at risk by virtue of living
in today’s society.
•
School factors approach states that schools are solely accountable and
responsible (Hixson & Tinszmann, 1990).
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© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Working with All Youth
Helping students with complex problems cuts
across many disciplines including mental
health, education, public health, substance
abuse, business, social services, juvenile
justice, and child and family services.
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© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Working with All Youth (cont.)
Many professionals are disheartened with trying to reach youth at
risk.
The result of these attitudes is a growing trend toward containment,
punishment, and banishment, rather than treatment and prevention.
However, all children can be reached.
Rather than reject and abandon youth who do not respond to our
traditional programs, it is crucial that we develop new and innovative
strategies for working with families, communities, and schools to
reach those children now regarded as “unreachable.”
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© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Systems Failures:
Who Is To Blame?
There are a large number of facilities in the U.S. that have the
potential to effectively serve youth at risk.
For many years youth at risk have been blamed for their
problems, but by blaming children and adolescents who are
already powerless, programs not only fail to protect our youth,
but add to the existing problems faced by this population.
We can no longer blame the youth but must undergo a critical
self-examination of intervention strategies and work to design
successful interventions.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Systems Failures: Who Is To Blame? (cont.)
Programs that are narrow in focus and aim to address problems in
isolation are failing the youth in need of services.
It is important to adjust and adapt intervention strategies to the complex
needs of the target population from the perspective of an interagency
response that is not limited to only schools.
Professional school counselors hold a pivotal position to lead these
efforts, as school can be the focal point for all youth.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Why Haven’t Needs of Youth At Risk Youth Been
Addressed?
There are five major reasons for the lack of commitment to the needs
of at-risk youth.
•
First, funding priorities have not been focused on this population.
•
Second, it is difficult to change systems.
•
Third, the nation does not have a consensus moral commitment to
working with this population.
•
Fourth, there is a lack of societal, institutional and community
commitment to address these problems for a disengaged and
essentially powerless population.
•
Finally, graduate level university training of professionals often lacks
innovation and responsiveness when addressing these concerns as a
part of the curriculum.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Responding to Crisis Situations
Experiences of violence, disaster, and any form of trauma can
leave students without sufficient resources needed to cope.
Crises that may affect the school community:
•
Suicide
•
Loss
•
Medical emergencies
•
Family trauma
•
School shootings
•
Gang activities
•
Abuse
•
Natural disasters
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Definition of Crisis
A crisis represents danger because it initially is experienced as an
intolerable difficulty that threatens to overwhelm the individual.
Unless the person obtains relief, the crisis potentially can cause severe
psychological, cognitive, physical, and behavioral consequences.
A crisis also presents an opportunity because during times of crisis,
individuals are usually more receptive to help.
Prompt, skillful interventions increase an individual’s ability to adapt and
function in the future.
The timing and intensity of the crisis, as well as the number of other
stressors the student is experiencing, can affect the complexity of the
crisis situation.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Crisis Intervention
Crisis intervention refers to the immediate action a professional school
counselor takes to “provide the support and direction that the student in crisis
requires for him or herself” (Steigerwald, 2010a, p. 830-831).
Goals of crisis intervention:
•
Help the student to defuse emotions
•
Organize and interpret what has happened
•
Integrate the traumatic event into his or her life story
•
Interpret the event in a way that is meaningful
Crisis intervention is time-limited and should not be confused with more longterm post-crisis counseling.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Guidelines to Follow in Crisis Counseling
Respond immediately.
Be directive at first.
Listen actively and nonjudgmentally as students tell their stories.
Follow a holistic approach.
Begin work where the student is experiencing the greatest impairment.
Get the facts surrounding the crisis.
Sustain relationships and resources.
Keep a multicultural awareness of the student’s expressions of emotions,
perspectives, and behaviors.
Do not offer false reassurance.
Help students take action.
Determine whether the effects are long-lasting and whether a referral for further
assessment and counseling is needed.
Do not work in isolation.
Continue to develop knowledge and skills in crisis intervention.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
1-20
Crisis Response Plans
At times, a crisis affects a larger number of students, and a
systemic response from the school is required.
Crises that may dictate a systemic response:
•
Homicide or suicide
•
Unexpected death
•
Natural disasters
Professional school counselors often play leadership roles in
helping schools develop and implement a systemic crisis plan
that is comprehensive, well-planned, mobilizes resources, and
operates quickly.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Crisis Response Plans (cont.)
Crisis response plans should exist on both a district and school
level.
The professional school counselor takes a leadership role in the
prevention, intervention, and post-incident support of school
responses by:
•
Providing individual and group counseling
•
Consulting with administrators, teachers, parents, and other
professionals
•
Coordinating services within the school and the community
Professional school counselors can be instrumental in leading
workshops in the school and community to communicate the
school crisis plan to others.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Suicide
Professional school counselors, especially at the high school
level, need to be prepared to assess suicidal ideation, behaviors,
and risk, as well as be ready to intervene decisively.
While the student is in the school, it is common practice to be
sure the student is in the company of an adult at all times and
that contact is made with a parent or guardian as soon as
possible.
Professional school counselors can be valuable consultants to
parents, facilitating transitions to treatment with mental health
professionals, community agencies, or psychiatric inpatient
facilities.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Assessing Suicidal Ideation and Behaviors
Professional school counselors should pay close attention to student
suicidal ideation and behaviors during an initial interview, and revisit
the issue periodically during the course of treatment.
Nearly all suicides are avoidable.
Predicting who will attempt suicide is extremely difficult, which is
why experienced professional school counselors take every client
with suicidal ideation very seriously.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Demographic Parameters, Clinical Conditions, and Suicide
Risk
Females are more likely to attempt suicide; males are more likely to
complete a suicide attempt.
75% of all suicides are completed by White males.
Individuals who have attempted suicide are more likely to make future
attempts.
Clients with depression who have experienced a recent loss are at a
greater risk of suicide.
Certain personality factors may increase risk (perfectionism, impulsivity,
pessimism).
Clients with personality disorders account for about one-third of
completed suicides.
Firearms account for nearly ½ of all completed suicides.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Assessing Suicidal Ideation and Behaviors (cont.)
Professional school counselors should also assess for resiliency and
protective factors, activities, or people in a student’s life that provide
responsibilities, meaning, and hope for the student.
When assessing suicidal risk it is essential to determine both the
existence and intensity of suicidal thoughts and behaviors and
respond quickly and decisively with a treatment plan.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Seven Facets of Suicidal Risk Determination
Verbal communication
•
Has the student verbalized suicidal thoughts overtly or subtly?
Plan
•
Is the plan concrete, detailed, and specific?
Method
•
Has the student chosen a specific method?
Preparation
•
Has the student obtained the means to carry out the plan?
Stressors
•
What are the student’s past, present, and future stressors?
Mental State
•
What is the student’s degree of hopelessness?
Hopelessness
•
To what degree is death viewed as the only way to relieve pain?
(Stelmacher, 1995)
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Assessing Suicidal Ideation and Behaviors (cont.)
Several instruments useful to professional school counselors:
•
Suicide Probability Scale (SPS)
•
Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (BSSI)
•
Suicide Ideation Questionnaire (SIQ)
At most, scores should be used as helpful guidelines;
professional school counselors must use caution because of the
potential for clients to underreport the severity of suicidal
thoughts and behaviors.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Violence & Threat Assessment
Several highly publicized school shootings over the past
decade have heightened public interest and fears related
to school safety.
Although such instances are rare, students today are more
likely to bring a weapon to school, fight on school grounds,
and bully or harass other students.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Bullying, Harassment, Abuse, and Dating Violence
At-risk status stems from isolation from societal, cultural,
school, family, or peer interactions and institutions.
Isolation may lead to victimization and perpetuation of
violence in the forms of bullying and harassment, abuse and
neglect, and suicide.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Bullying & Harassment
Bullying and harassment are caused when an imbalance of power
is created.
Failure of adults and bystanders to act encourages perpetuation
of reputations of abusers as strong individuals, and victims as
weak.
The quickest way to interrupt the cycle of bullying or harassment
is for adults and peers to intervene.
Teaching adults and peers the importance of intervening and how
to effectively intervene is a critical role of the professional school
counselor.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Bullying & Harassment (cont)
Bullying and harassment have become so problematic in
schools that many states now have legislation or regulations
prohibiting these behaviors.
This includes indirect forms of bullying and harassment such
as relational aggression and cyberbullying.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Physical Abuse, Sexual
Abuse, & Neglect
Widespread physical and sexual abuse and neglect often result in
devastating long-term emotional problems, including anxiety, depression,
substance abuse, and other serious psychiatric disturbances.
Emotional and social isolation is particularly problematic with individuals
who have been abused or neglected, or are witnesses of abuse.
Incidences of dating violence have risen over the past decade and affects
many teenagers.
Victims of dating violence displayed increased risks of suicidal thought
and actions, substance use, depression, and risky sexual behavior.
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© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Threat Assessment
Violent acts committed on school property increased sharply during
the 1980s, but have been steadily declining since 1993.
There is no foolproof profile of violent youth or list of risk factors that
allows certain identification of youth as violent.
Threat assessment, developmental programming, prevention, and
intervention are all part of a comprehensive school safety program.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Threat Assessment (cont.)
Most violent students are not playful.
Violent students often feel desperate and panic-stricken, fearing that
others want to hurt them.
In general, males aged 15-24 have a higher risk of violence.
Students from lower socio-economic status have higher associated risks.
Students with thought disorders and disorders of impulse present with
higher degrees of risk.
Those with a history of violent acts are at greater risk for future violent
acts.
Environmental risk factors include:
•
Unstable family and peer relationships
•
Association with criminal or sexual predators
•
Association with antisocial peers
•
Educational problems
•
Living in an urban environment
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© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Threat Assessment (cont.)
In previous school shooting incidences, most times the attacker
revealed his plan to at least one other person not involved in the
attack, and most had access to guns and previous experiences
using guns.
FBI’s classification of threats:
•
Indirect threats
•
Veiled threats
•
Conditional threats
•
Direct threats
FBI’s 4-pronged Assessment Model
•
Personality of the Student
•
Family Dynamics
•
School Dynamics
•
Social Dynamics
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© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Suggestions for Prevention of Violence and Intervening with
Youth At Risk
Increase the quality and frequency of peer contacts.
Create a sense of hope and feelings of togetherness in the school and
community.
Teach and role-play interpersonal and social skills in real life situations.
Establish a clear district-wide policy for dealing with violence, bullying,
harassment, abuse, and neglect.
Encourage participation in mentoring programs.
Develop and train a threat assessment team in each school.
Establish a peer mentoring program.
Collaborate with law enforcement, faith leaders, and representatives of social
service agencies.
Create a school climate of trust between adults and students.
Help parents, guardians, and other adults in the life of the child make
systematic connections in the community.
Provide supportive intervention services to potential offenders.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Protective Factors
Commitment to school
Intelligence
Control over career choices
Intolerance toward deviance
Confidence in academic ability
Positive social orientation
Close relationship with a teacher
Adult mentoring programs
Academic/vocational planning initiated by
the end of middle school
Role models or mentors in careers of
interest
Parental influence through support
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Substance Abuse
Nearly one-third of youth aged 12-20 years drank alcohol in the
previous month.
As many as 10% of youth in this age group abuse, or are
dependent on alcohol.
Professional school counselors may serve more as a referral
source than providing actual treatment in the school context.
Professional school counselors must at least become proficient in
substance abuse assessment.
Assessment of substance abuse is best conducted early in the
counseling process.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Substance Abuse (cont.)
Since self-report of substance use is fairly reliable, professional
school counselors often use a straightforward interviewing approach.
A brief interview method designed for alcohol abuse screening is
CAGE.
•
Have you ever felt you need to Cut down on your drinking?
•
Have people Annoyed you by criticizing your drinking?
•
Have you ever felt bad or Guilty about drinking?
•
Have you ever had a drink first thing in the morning to steady
your nerves or get rid of a hangover (Eye opener)?
Client responses can lead the professional counselor to suspect
alcohol or other drug abuse and use more formalized or systematic
data collection procedures.
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© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Grief Work and Children from Changing Families
•
Professional school counselors encounter children with grief
reactions quite frequently for a variety of reasons.
•
Most grief reactions share commonalities, and there are
strategies and interventions professional school counselors
can use with groups or individuals.
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Understanding the Effects of Divorce
Research shows that most children adjust well to divorce, although older children
experience more negative outcomes.
The majority of children from divorced families are emotionally well-adjusted,
however a number of risk and resiliency factors play into the mix.
When compared to nondivorced peers, adolescents from divorced families
demonstrate:
•
More depression
•
Greater conflict with parents
•
Poorer school performance
•
Higher levels of aggression and disruptive behavior
It is critical for professional school counselors to understand that 75-80% of
children and young adults from divorced families:
•
Do not experience major psychological problems
•
Aspire to and achieve career or higher educational goals
•
Enjoy intimate relationships as adults
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Understanding the Effects of Divorce (cont.)
Risk Factors
Protective Factors
•
Interparental cooperation and
diminished conflict following the
divorce
•
Competent parenting from custodial
parents
•
Interparental conflict
•
Gender
•
Poor quality parenting
•
Lack of contact with father
•
Contact with, and competent
parenting from, nonresidential
parents
•
Having a trusting relationship with a
nonparental adult and peers
•
Positive school experiences
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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A Primer on Grief Work
Grief as a development process:
•
Stage 1 : Shock and denial
•
Stage 2: Anger
•
Stage 3: Guilt
•
Stage 4: Hopelessness/Depression
•
Stage 5: Acceptance
Many of the physical symptoms associated with grief reactions are similar to
those of depression:
•
Fatigue
•
Loss or increase in appetite
•
Loss of concentration
•
Feelings of hopelessness and isolation
•
Frequent sighing or breathlessness
•
Aches and pains
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A Primer on Grief Work (cont.)
The intensity of the grief experience is usually determined by:
•
One’s personal relationship to the loss
•
The intensity of or ambivalence to that relationship
•
The dependency or security provided by that relationship
•
How the loss occurred
•
One’s personality
•
History of dealing with grief experiences
•
Individual characteristics
Obstacles to effective grieving:
•
Sudden loss
•
Lack of finality or uncertain loss
•
Lack of support
•
The perception that grief is a weakness and should be avoided or
denied
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A Primer on Grief Work (cont.)
Professional school counselors should assess the situation to decide whether a
referral should be made.
In the context of developmental grief reactions, the professional school counselor
should continuously remind the student that the symptoms and reactions are
normal and life and emotional health will get better in time.
Professional school counselors can help students resolve the 4 primary tasks of
grieving
•
Accept the reality of the loss.
•
Experience (not avoid) the pain of the grief.
•
Adjust to life without the lost object or condition.
•
Emotionally relocate the loss and move on with life.
Other suggestions for professional school counselors:
•
Encourage them to find a way to resolve the loss
•
Encourage social support
•
Bibliotherapy
•
Journal writing
•
Help the student keep busy in meaningful activities and take care of their physical
health
•
Be alert for signs of complicated grief or other signs of trouble
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Dropout Prevention
Risk factors:
Preventive factors:
•
High rates of absenteeism and
tardiness
•
More time in general education for
students with disabilities
•
Low grades
•
Provision of tutoring services
•
A history of course failures
•
•
Limited parental support
Training for competitive
employment and independent
living
•
Low participation in
extracurricular activities
•
Attending a school that maintained
high expectations for all students
•
Alcohol or drug problems
•
•
Negative attitudes toward school
Receiving significant support from
teachers
•
High levels of mobility
•
Grade retention
Bradley T. Erford. Transforming The School Counseling Profession, Fourth Edition.
© 2015,2011,2007,2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Dropout Prevention (cont.)
Most dropout interventions seek to:
•
Enhance students’ sense of belonging in school
•
Foster the development of relationships with teachers, administrators,
and peers
•
Improve academic success
•
Address personal problems through counseling
•
Provide skill-building opportunities in behavior and social skills
Categories of dropout interventions
•
Personal/affective
•
Academic
•
Family outreach
•
School structure
•
Work related
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Dropout Prevention (cont.)
Professional school counselors can help develop and implement
school-wide dropout prevention programs, using risk screenings
to identify students at higher risk, and promoting some of the
key components related to school completion.
Key dropout preventions/interventions
•
Environmental support
•
Counseling support
•
Enhancing relationships and affiliation
•
Providing/supporting vocational programming
•
Bolster outside influences
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Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation Program
Development
Most schools implement some systemic or developmental
program to help students mediate and resolve conflict.
The development of any conflict resolution or peer mediation
program or intervention should reflect the unique contextual
needs of the school or district to be served.
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Program Development:
Assessing Climate
Necessary to understand the structure of competition in the
school.
Professional school counselors must work to understand the
reasons for conflicts and types of conflict within the school
climate.
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Systemic Change
Efforts to create a high level of personal and community awareness
and participation in conflict resolution and peer mediation programs
can stimulate collective power, and share information about
similarities and differences useful in formulating solutions.
Peer mediation and conflict resolution programs can change the
community as a whole.
Teacher and administrative support is vital.
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Diversity Considerations
Essential that peer mediators represent the multiple
diversities of the school.
Three factors are necessary: recruitment, selection, and
training.
Diverse populations of schools—differentiated by age, race or
ethnicity, disability, socioeconomic status, and academic
ability—need to be reflected in programming.
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Recruitment
Enlist the help of teachers.
Only students likely to be selected should be encouraged.
Empower students to be leaders and role models.
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Selection
Should reflect a cross-section of student population.
Student characteristics should include leadership skills, maturity,
communication skills, responsibility, perspective taking, empathy,
and problem-solving skills.
High academic achievement is not necessarily a prerequisite for
selection.
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Training
Multicultural sensitivity should be integrated.
Special attention to patterns of speech and issues specific to
the special needs of non-English-speaking students or
students for whom English is a second language must be
considered.
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Program Implementation
Plans must be well documented to be linked with school-wide data.
Cyclical process including:
•
development of a mission statement,
•
the collection of data used to set goals,
•
the prioritizing of goals,
•
training for skill development,
•
an implementation schedule,
•
evaluation,
•
and follow-up.
Enlist the input of all stakeholders.
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Training for Program Coordinators
Well trained coordinators can take a leadership role.
Need for strategies and information that is practical, easy to
use, and can be directly applied (King, Wagner, & Hedrick,
2001).
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Student Access to Services
Ensure that programs serve the entire school community.
Administrative support is necessary.
Sends a message of shared values and beliefs.
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Program Evaluation
As professional school counselors work to link school counseling
programs to the mission of schools, evidence of concrete measures
that contribute to creating a safe learning environment is essential.
Regular program evaluation reports should be completed and
presented to all school personnel.
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Multicultural Implications
To be truly effective, conflict resolution and violence prevention
efforts must “adjust” to the diverse cultural, ethnic, and
socioeconomic influences of society and involve every segment of
society.
Need to educate students in a global context.
Must teach students how to manage and resolve conflicts through
multiple contexts that move beyond merely tolerating diversity but to
one that seeks out and celebrates the rich dimensions of multiple
diversities.
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Recommendations for Professional School Counselors:
Generating Effective Programs
1. Develop authentic partnerships with community agencies.
2. Facilitate interdisciplinary collaboration by being the Coordinator
of Interdisciplinary Services.
3. Maintain a strong multicultural focus.
4. Be a systems change agent to better serve the needs of youth at
risk.
5. Empower clients by giving up power.
6. Look for short-term successes.
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More Recommendations for Professional School Counselors:
Generating Effective Programs
7. Become an advocate by fighting for services and funds for youth at risk.
8. Research and document outcomes by researching and documenting
what interventions work and which do not.
9. Assume responsibility for successes and failures by discontinuing
interventions when they do not work and then implementing effective
intervention strategies.
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Conclusion
It is clear that the issues encountered by youth at-risk in the U.S.
continue to present serious problems for schools, families, and
communities.
It is essential that professional school counselors design innovative
service systems to effectively address the complex and multifaceted
needs of the at-risk population.
It is clear that many of the existing prevention and intervention programs
are ineffective and unsuccessful, given the high numbers of disengaged
and marginalized youth.
Therefore, a new approach to working with this population is critical.
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