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Grounded theory methods
(紮根理論方法)
鄭先祐 (Ayo) 教授
國立台南大學 環境與生態學院
生態科學與技術學系
Ayo NUTN website:
http://myweb.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/
Grounded theory methods
Grounded
 落地
 基於數據
 基於事實
Theory
 建構理論
 系統架構
運用於：
 探索未知
 學習新知
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What is Theory?
Positivist definitions of theory
 Seeks causes, favors deterministic
explanations, and emphasizes generality
and universality.
Interpretive definitions of theory
 Calls for the imaginative understanding
of the studied phenomenon.
 Conceptualize the studied phenomenon to
understand it in abstract terms.
 Offer an imaginative interpretation.
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What defines a Grounded Theory?
 Researchers use grounded theory methods to
pursue varied emergent analytic goals and
foci.
 Grounded theory involves taking
comparisons from data and reaching up to
construct abstractions and simultaneously
reaching down to tie these abstractions to
data.
 It means learning about the specific and the
general -and seeing what is new in themthen exploring their links to larger issues or
creating larger unrecognized issues in
entirety.
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研究前準備工作
1. 選擇研究方向
2. 按研究方向，建構基本認知
 主題的相關文獻 (學理與方法)
 對象的資料
3. 研擬主題與目的(目標)與範疇界定
4. 建構相關主題(目的)的專業能力：
 搜尋文獻，研讀與整理
 相關知識，如數家珍。
 廣度與深度。
5. 確認主題與目的，以及建構方法
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確定目地，選擇方法
方法選擇，取決於是否可達到目地？
選擇好壞標準：
 可達到目的的方法中，
選擇最簡單、最容易
 the rule of Parsimony
質化 vs. 量化
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量化研究法 vs. 質化研究法
對象陌生，宜用「質化」研究法。
 探索瞭解對象的內涵 (挖掘新鮮事物)。
對象熟悉，可用「量化」研究法。
 按已知內容，提出假說，量化驗證。
研究過程：
 Interplay between qualitative and
quantitative methods.
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Science and concepts
Science could not exist without
concepts.
 科學(知識)若沒有觀念，就無法存在。
 有觀念，才能捕捉到數據，建構知識。
 不同觀念，捕捉到的數據，或有差異。
 Open 觀念，落地(基於)於數據，貼近事實，
建構新知識 (emerge new theory)。
 建構假說，驗證假說，形成理論(解釋)。
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質化研究：紮根理論 (Grounded theory)
 Charmaz, K. (2006)
Constructing Grounded
Theory. A Practical Guide
Through Qualitative Analysis.
SAGE Publications.
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質化研究：紮根理論 (Grounded theory)
1. Being open(開放) to multiple possibilities.
2. Generating a list of options.
3. Exploring(探索) various possibilities before
choosing any one.
4. Using nonlinear forms of thinking such as
going back and forth(來回反覆) and
circumventing around a subject to get a
fresh perspective (取得新面向).
5. Having fun while doing it.
6. It is both science and art (科學與藝術).
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Coding procedures
1. Build rather than test theory
2. Provide researchers with analytic tools
for handling masses of raw data.
3. Help analysts to consider alternative
meanings of phenomena
4. Be systematic and creative
simultaneously.
5. Identify, develop, and relate the
concepts that are the building blocks
of theory.
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Grounded theory
學理
譯碼
(coding)
數據
Transforming data into codes.
Coding relies on having solid data.
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Grounded theory 用於『學習新知』
認知
譯碼
(coding)
數據
研讀文獻，整理文獻
消化吸收，建構知識
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Criteria for grounded theory studies
1. Credibility (確實度)
 Are the data sufficient to merit your claims?
 Are there strong logical links between the
gathered data and your argument and analysis?
2. Originality (原創度)
 Are your categories fresh?
 Do they offer new insights?
3. Resonance (共鳴度)
4. Usefulness (有效度)
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Criteria for grounded theory studies
1. Credibility (確實度)
2. Originality (原創度)
3. Resonance (共鳴度)
 Does your grounded theory make sense to your
participants or people who share their circumstances?
 Does your analysis offer them deeper insights
about their lives and worlds?
4. Usefulness (有效度)
 How does your work contribute to knowledge?
 How does it contribute to making a better world?
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Grounded theory coding
起初譯碼 (Initial coding)
 開放式譯碼 (open coding)
 open to exploring whatever theoretical
possibilities we can discern in the data.
 Initial coding should stick closely to the data.
 Try to see actions in each segment of data rather
than applying preexisting categories to the data.
焦點譯碼 (Focused coding)
主軸譯碼 (Axial coding)
理論譯碼 (Theoretical coding)
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Initial coding(起初譯碼) practices
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Remain open
Stay close to the data
Keep your codes simple and precise
Construct short codes
Preserve actions
Compare data with data
Move quickly through the data
Initial coding (起初譯碼) practices
Open coding (開放式譯碼)
Using comparative methods
途徑
 Word-by-word coding
 Line-by-line coding
 Coding incident to incident
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Focused coding (焦點譯碼)
Focused coding is the second major
phase in coding.
These codes are more directed,
selective, and conceptual than wordby-word, line-by-line, and incident-byincident coding.
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Axial coding (主軸譯碼)
 Axial coding specifies the properties and
dimensions of a category.
 building ‘a dense texture of relationships
around the “axis” of a category.’
 axial coding follows the development of a
major category, although it may be in an
early stage of development.
 The purposes o axial coding are to sort,
synthesize, and organize large amounts of
data and reassemble them in new ways after
open coding.
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Theoretical coding (理論譯碼)
 Theoretical coding is a sophisticated level of
coding that follows the codes you have
selected during focused coding.
 conceptualizing ‘how the substantive
codes may relate to each other as
hypotheses to be integrated into a theory.’
 In short, theoretical codes specify possible
relationships between categories you have
developed in your focused coding.
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Grounded theory: coding (譯碼)
Theoretical coding
specify possible relationships
between categories you have
developed in your focused coding.
Word-by-word coding
Line-by-line coding
Coding incident to
incident
Open coding
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to sort, synthesize,
and organize
large amounts of
These codes are data and
more directed,
reassemble them
selective, and
in new ways after
conceptual
open coding.
Focused coding
Axial coding
Grounded theory: coding (譯碼)
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Grounded theory methods
Developing theoretical sensitivity through theorizing
起初譯碼
data
焦點譯碼
Grounded theory
Theoretical sampling
Take memos
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Coding
主
軸
譯
碼
Reducing problems in coding
Wrestling with preconceptions.
 Our preconceptions may only become
apparent when our taken-for-granted
standpoints are challenged.
 How and what record affects what you
have to code.
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Memo-writing
 Methods for producing memos rely on making
them spontaneous, not mechanical.
 write memos to serve analytic purposes
 We write our memos in informal, unofficial
language for personal use.
 Freewriting
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Theoretical sampling, saturation, and sorting
 Theoretical sampling prompts you to retrace
your steps or take a new path when you have
some tentative categories and emerging, but
incomplete ideas.
 By going back into the empirical world and
collecting more data about the properties of
your category, you can saturate its properties
with data and write more memos, making
them more analytic as you proceed.
 Afterwards, you are ready to sort and
integrate memos on your theoretical
categories.
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The logic of theoretical sampling
Theoretical sampling involves
starting with data, constructing
tentative ideas about the data, and
then examining these ideas through
further empirical inquiry.
Writing memos has already enabled
you to flag incomplete categories
and gaps in your analysis.
Find needed data to fill gaps and to
saturate categories.
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Moving toward emergent objectives
To delineate the properties of a
category
To check hunches(徵兆) about
categories
To saturate the properties of a
category
To distinguish between categories
To clarify relationships between
emerging categories
To identify variation in a process.
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Conducting theoretical sampling
 Specifying the relevant properties of your
categories
 Increasing the precision of your categories
 Providing the substance to move your material
from description to analysis
 Making your analysis more abstract and
generalizable
 Grounding your conjectures(推測) in data
 Explicating the analytic links between or
among categories
 Increasing the parsimony of your
theoretical statements.
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Saturating theoretical categories
When do you stop gathering data?
Stop when your categories are
‘saturated’.
Categories are ‘saturated’ when
gathering fresh data no longer sparks
new theoretical insights, nor reveals
new properties of your core theoretical
categories.
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Theoretical sorting, diagramming and
integrating
Sorting, diagramming, and
integrating your memos are interrelated processes.
Your sorting may integrate the
analysis and a diagram may
simultaneously sort and integrate it.
The visual image of a diagram may
suggest the content and direction of the
analysis as well as its form.
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Grounded theory methods
Theory (認知)
取樣驗證
轉譯
data
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捕捉到的觀念(項目)持
續系統整合，形成理論。
理論透過取樣驗證，確認
Theory 是基於
(grounded) 數據。
確認 Theory 建構合理，
且已經飽和(完整)。
撰寫報告。
Grounded theory:
from order to disorder to order
Theoretical
sampling and
sorting order
Coding
order
Grounded
Focused, category,
and axial coding
disorder
Regarding writing
Making your mark
Drafting discoveries
Revising early drafts
 Pulling the pieces together
 Constructing arguments
 Scrutinizing (詳細檢查) categories
Returning to the library
 Literature reviews
 Theoretical frameworks
Rendering(精煉) through writing
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讀故事→ 說故事→ 寫故事
看懂
了解
理解
逐段文字
整體內涵
脈絡架構
引申
創新
觸類旁通
獨立運作
Out-of-the box thinking
http://mom2zero.blogspot.tw/2011_09_01_archive.html
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“To think out of the box is
to think creatively”.
7 Ways
on How to Think
Out of the Box :
Improving
Creativity
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1. Increase your curiosity
2. Consider Multiple
Perspectives
3. Develop a routine
4. Be Resourceful
5.
your Right
5. Tapping
運用Grounded
theory，
Brain
(輕扣你的右腦)
基於事實(數據)，建構系統認
6. Self-Hypnosis
(自我催眠)
知(理論)。
7. Become Imaginative
http://jaeldungca.blogspot.tw/2011/08/7-ways-on-how-to-think-out-of-box.html
3個步驟，讓大腦更高級的思考
第1個步驟：讓過去一切歸零，將以往的認知
通通丟入一個記憶庫。
第2個步驟：打開另一個記憶庫，然後利用腦
第2個步驟：運用Grounded theory，
中的胼胝體輸入成功者的程式。
基於事實(數據)，建構系統認知(理論)。
第3個步驟：隨時檢視並刪除腦中的木馬程式，
不要讓思考又回到過去失敗的迴路。
摘錄自《5的無限次方立體記憶法—破解
古人過目不忘以及倒背如流的祕密》一書
《布克文化》出版社 (2012/12/25)
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Are You?
http://empoweredonlineentrepreneurs.com/marketing-psychology/living-a-life-out-of-the-box/
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問題與討論
Ayo NUTN website:
http://myweb.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/
Quality Management：PDCAct
Everyone cares about quality.
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http://www.ibs-us.com/en/company/culture_of_compliance/index.html
個人開始，串聯可及的力量
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