Transcript Eleventh Grade Science FCAT Review Session
Science FCAT Benchmark Review
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• What is matter?
– Anything that has mass and takes up space.
• Density – the amount of matter in a given volume (D=M/V) • Ductility – the ability to be pulled into a thin strand, like a wire • Malleability – the ability to be pressed or pounded into a thin sheet
These are examples of?
Formula for Density
•D = M/V •Where –D=Density –M=Mass –V=Volume
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Electrical Conductivity – How well a substance allows electricity to flow through it • Solubility – The ability to dissolve in another substance
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Physical Properties – Are those that can be observed without changing the make-up, or identity of the matter. • Chemical Properties – Describe matter based on its ability to change into a new kind of matter. Ie, paper/flammability, iron/O 2
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Physical Change – occurs when a physical property (size/shape) of a substance is changed; many physical changes can be undone. Ie, folding paper • Chemical Change – occurs when a one or more substances are changed into new substances with different properties; cannot be undone by physical means
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Defining Features – Solid • Keeps it shape and volume – Liquid • Takes the shape of its container • Keeps the same volume, in a container or not • Can flow – Gas • Takes the shape of its?
• Takes the volume of ?
• Can ?
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Boiling Point – temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid state to a gaseous state • Freezing Point – temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid state to a solid state • Melting Point – temperature at which a substance changes from a solid state to a liquid state • Condensation Point – temperature at which a substance changes from a gaseous state to a liquid state • Sublimation – change from the solid state to the gaseous state • Deposition – change from the gaseous state to the solid state
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Temperature – measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance. Scales used?
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Waves – Crest – peak/highest point of wave – Trough – valley/lowest point of wave – Amplitude – distance the wave oscillates from its resting position. The larger the amplitude, the more energy carried by the wave.
– Wavelength – the distance from one point on one wave to a corresponding point on an adjacent wave, ie. crest to crest, rp to rp, trough to trough – Resting Position
http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/waves/partsOfAWave/waveParts.htm
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Element – simplest form of matter • Atom – smallest particle into which an element can be divided and still have properties of that element.
• Compound/Molecule – Two or more elements that are combined.
• Mixture – a combination of two or more substances that have not combined chemically
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Subatomic Particles – Proton – positive charge – nucleus – Neutron – no charge – nucleus – Electron – negative charge – outside the nucleus (electron clouds) • Proton and neutrons have about the same mass. Electrons are significantly smaller.
• An atom is identified by the number of protons in its nucleus
Strand A – The Nature of Matter
• Isotopes – Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons.
– Hydrogen has one proton.
• 0 neutron – protium • 1 neutron – deuterium • 2 neutrons – tritium
B. Solution C. Compound D. Pure Substance
Strand B - Energy
• Energy – the ability to do work • Geothermal – energy obtained from the thermal energy inside Earth • Mechanical – energy an object has because of its motion or position (kinetic/potential) • Nuclear – energy contained in the nuclei of atoms
What kinds of power plants are these?
Strand B - Energy
• Wind – using the wind (turbines) • Hydroelectric – using water • Tidal – using the waves/tides • Solar – using sun (photovoltaic cells) • Fossil fuels – oil, coal, natural gas (formed millions of years ago).
• Electrical – energy produced by electric charges
• Turbines, turbines, turbines!!!!
• Remember that most power plants have a turbine somewhere in them that allows them to convert (not create) energy. • Remember that energy can never be created or destroyed.
What kinds of power plants are these?
Strand B - Energy
• Sound – energy carried by sound waves • Light – energy carried by light and other kinds of electromagnetic waves • Chemical – energy stored in chemical bonds • Thermal – Energy related to the temperature of a substance – Conduction, Convection, Radiation
Strand B - Energy
• Conduction – transfer of heat from a warmer substance to a cooler substance (contact) • Convection – transfer of heat warmer fluid/gas rises and cooler sinks • Radiation – transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves at random
Radiation Convection Conduction
Strand B – Energy
• Law of Conservation of Energy – Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it can only change form or be transferred • Kinetic Energy – energy an object has in motion • Potential Energy – stored energy an object has
Strand B - Energy
• Energy from Sun (electromagnetic spectrum) • Energy inefficiency (heat loss) ie, lamp example • Heat flow warmer to cooler • Energy flow – sun fossil fuels heat plants animals
Benchmarks: SC.B.1.2.2, SC.B.1.2.3, SC.B.1.2.4, SC.B.1.2.5 and SC.B.1.2.6
G. Heat H. Light I. Mechanical
Strand C – Force and Motion
• Force – push or pull
Scalars & Vectors
• • • The motion of objects can be described by words words such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration. These mathematical quantities which are used to describe the motion of objects can be divided into two categories. The quantity is either a scalar or a vector. These two categories can be distinguished from one another by their distinct definitions:
Scalars
are quantities which are fully described by a magnitude alone.
Vectors
are quantities which are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
Scalars & Vectors
• • Distance and speed are scalar quantities • Displacement and velocity are vector quantities.
Examples:
While speed (like 30km/hr) is a scalar, velocity (30km/hr North) is a vector, consisting of a speed and a direction (north).
Scalar or Vector?
• 5 m • 30 m/sec, East • 20 degrees Celsius • 256 bytes • 4,000 calories • 5 mi., right
Distance/Displacement
• • • Distance and displacement are two quantities which may seem to mean the same thing, yet they have distinctly different meanings and definitions.
Distance
is a scalar quantity during its motion. which refers to "how much ground an object has covered"
Displacement
is a vector quantity to "how far out of place an object is"; it is the object's change in position. which refers
Distance/Displacement Check
• A student walks 4 meters East, 2 meters South, 4 meters West, and finally 2 meters North.
4 meters 2 meters 2 meters 4 meters
Distance/Displacement
• Even though the student has walked a total distance of 12 meters, her displacement is 0 meters. During the course of her motion, she has "covered 12 meters of ground" (distance = 12 m). Yet, when she is finished walking, she is not "out of place" – i.e., there is no displacement for her motion (displacement = 0 m). Displacement, being a vector quantity, must give attention to direction. The 4 meters east is canceled by the 4 meters west; and the 2 meters south is canceled by the 2 meters north.
Distance/Displacement Check
• The diagram below shows the position of a cross-country skier at various times. At each of the indicated times, the skier turns around and reverses the direction of travel. In other words, the skier moves from A to B to C to D. Use the diagram to determine the distance traveled by the skier and the resulting displacement during these three minutes. A 40 m ‘ C 100 m ‘ D B 40 m___
Distance/Displacement
• Seymour Action views soccer games from under the bleachers. He frequently paces back and forth to get the best view. The following diagram below shows several of Seymour's positions at various times. At each marked position, Seymour makes a "U-turn" and moves in the opposite direction. In other words, Seymour moves from position A to B to C to D. What is Seymour's resulting displacement and distance of travel?
Distance/Displacement
D B C A ___________________________________ -10 0 10 20 30
Let
’
s Check
• What is the displacement of a cross country team that begins a ten mile course ending up back at the school?
• What is the distance and displacement of the race car drivers in the Indy 500?
Speed
•
Speed
is a scalar quantity which refers to "how fast an object is moving." A fast moving object has a high speed while a slow-moving object has a low speed. An object with no movement at all has a zero speed.
Constant Speed
• Moving objects don't always travel with erratic and changing speeds. Occasionally, an object will move at a steady rate with a constant speed. That is, the object will cover the same distance every regular interval of time. For instance, a cross-country runner might be running with a constant speed of 6 m/s in a straight line. If her speed is constant, then the distance traveled every second is the same. The runner would cover a distance of 6 meters every second. If you measured her position each second, you would notice that her position was changing by 6 meters each second. The following data tables depict both constant and changing speeds:
15 10 5 0 30 25 20 0 1 2 3 4
Constant Speed
Time
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 Position (m) 0 6 12 18 24
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4
Changing Speed
Time
Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 Position (m) 0 1 4 9 16
Instantaneous Speed
• • • Since a moving object often changes its speed during its motion, it is common to distinguish between the average speed and the instantaneous speed. The distinction is as follows:
Instantaneous Speed
instant in time.
- speed at any given
Average Speed
- average of all instantaneous speeds; found simply by a distance/time ratio.
Instantaneous Speed
• You might think of the instantaneous speed as the speed which the speedometer reads at any given instant in time and the average speed as the average of all the speedometer readings during the course of the trip.
Average Speed
• As an object moves, it often undergoes changes in speed. For example, during an average trip to school, there are many changes in speed. Rather than the speedometer maintaining a steady reading, the needle constantly moves up and down to reflect the stopping and starting and the accelerating and decelerating. At one instant, the car may be moving at 50 mi/hr and at another instant, it may be stopped (i.e., 0 mi/hr). Yet during the course of the trip to school the person might average a speed of 25 mi/hr.
Average Speed
• The instantaneous speed of an object is not to be confused with the average speed. Average speed is a measure of the distance traveled in a given period of time. Suppose that during your trip to school, you traveled a distance of 5 miles and the trip lasted 0.2 hours (12 minutes). The average speed of your car could be determined as:
Average Speed
• Average Speed = Distance/Time • Average Speed = 5 miles/.2 hour • Average Speed = 25 miles/hour • On the average, your car was moving with a speed of 25 miles per hour. During your trip, there may have been times that you were stopped and other times that your speedometer was reading 50 miles per hour; yet on the average you were moving with a speed of 25 miles per hour.
Average Speed Check
• While on vacation, Lisa Carr traveled a total distance of 400 miles. Her trip took 8 hours. What was her average speed? To compute her average speed, simply divide the distance of travel by the time of travel.
• Lisa Carr averaged a speed of 50 miles per hour. She may not have been traveling at a constant speed of 50 mi/hr. She undoubtedly, was stopped at some instant in time (perhaps for a bathroom break or for lunch) and she probably was going 65 mi/hr at other instants in time. Yet, she averaged a speed of 50 miles per hour.
Velocity
•
Velocity
is a vector quantity which refers to "the rate at which an object changes its position." • Imagine a person moving one step forward and one step back. Because the person always returns to the original position, the motion would never result in a change in position. Since velocity is defined as the rate at which the position changes, this motion results in zero velocity. • If a person in motion wishes to maximize his/her velocity, then that person must make every effort to maximize the amount that he/she is displaced from his/her original position. Every step must go into moving that person further from where he/she started. Heading in the opposite direction effectively begins to cancel whatever displacement there once was.
Describing Velocity
• The task of describing the direction of the velocity vector is easy! The direction of the velocity vector is the same as the direction in which an object is moving. It does not matter whether the object is speeding up or slowing down, if the object is moving rightwards, then its velocity is described as being rightwards. If an object is moving downwards, then its velocity is described as being downwards. Thus an airplane moving towards the west with a speed of 300 mi/hr has a velocity of 300 mi/hr, west. Note that speed has no direction (it is a scalar) and that velocity is simply the speed with a direction.
Terminal Velocity
• The terminal velocity of an object falling toward the earth, in non-vacuum, is the speed at which the gravitational force is pulling downwards and an opposing force is faced by the resistance of air (resistance) pushing upwards. 9.8 m/s 2
Acceleration
•
Acceleration
its velocity is a vector quantity which is defined as "the rate at which an object changes ." An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity. • Sports announcers will occasionally say that a person is accelerating if he/she is moving fast. Yet acceleration has nothing to do with going fast. A person can be moving very fast, and still not be accelerating. Acceleration has to do with changing how fast an object is moving. If an object is not changing its velocity, then the object is not accelerating.
Strand C – Force and Motion
• Non-contact forces – magnetism/gravity – Weight v. Mass • Series Circuit – connecting a circuit in a line • Parallel Circuit – divide the current among different devices
Which is parallel? Which is series?
Force
• A force is a push or pull. If an object accelerates (speeds up, slows down, or turns), a force is acting upon it.
• The total force felt by an object is called the net force.
• Some force are not visible (i.e. gravity, magnetism or earth ’ s gravitational field).
Forces
• Balanced forces are two or more forces that cancel out each others effects and do not cause a change in motion. Net force equals zero.
• Unbalanced forces exceed zero and therefore cause motion.
Newton
’
s First Law of Motion
• • Also know as Newton ’ s law of inertia.
“ An object will remain at rest or move with constant velocity until it is acted upon by a net force ” • Difficult to prove because of friction.
Friction
• The unbalanced force that brings nearly everything to a stop.
• The smoother the surface, the ?
• Static friction – prevents an object from moving when force is applied (i.e. pushing something heavy or walking).
• Sliding friction – slows an object that can slide (i.e. skidding tires, shuffling shoes).
Friction
• Rolling friction – needed to make a wheel turn. Rolling friction pushes back so that a tire can roll forward.
• Air resistance – acts against the direction of motion and gets stronger as an object goes faster.
•
Newton
’
s Second Law of Motion
“ An object acted upon by a net force will accelerate in the direction of the force according to the following equation: – Acceleration = net force/mass – a = F net/m or F net = ma – Force is measured in Newtons (N) – 1 N = 1 kg .
m/s 2
Newton
’
s Third Law
• For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• While driving down the road, an unfortunate bug strikes the windshield of a bug. Quite obviously, this is a case of Newton's third law of motion. The bug hit the bus and the windshield hit the bus. Which of the two forces is greater: the force on the bug or the force on the bus?
• Rockets are unable to accelerate in space because ...
– a. there is no air in space for the rockets to push off of. – b. there is no gravity is in space.
– c. there is no air resistance in space.
– d. ... nonsense! Rockets do accelerate in space.
A. Earth
’
s Shape B. Earth
’
s Gravity C. Earth
’
s Mountains
Benchmarks: SC.C.2.2.4, SC.C.2.2.2, SC.C.2.2.3
G. Sponge Block H. Sand Block I. Plastic Block
Strand D – Processes that Shape the Earth
• Igneous Rocks – formed when magma or lava cools and becomes solid.
• Sedimentary – formed when sediment is pressed and cemented • Metamorphic – formed when rock have been changed over time with high pressure and temperature
Strand D – Processes that Shape the Earth
• Melting – hot temperatures deep inside Earth melt rocks, forming magma • Cooling and Hardening – Magma that rises from deep inside earth cools and hardens into rock (both above/below surface).
• Weathering and Erosion – breaks apart existing rocks, forming sediment. Erosion moves sediment.
• Compacting and Cementing – Pressure compacts; water between particles evaporates.
• Heat and Pressure – melt and squeeze minerals changing the minerals or grain size.
Rock Cycle
Weathering Processes
• Mechanical Weathering – process whereby rock physically break down into smaller pieces but do not change chemical composition.
• Chemical Weathering – process whereby rock is broken down and chemical composition changes.
Agents of Mechanical Weathering
• Ice Wedging – water seeps into cracks or joints in rocks and freeze.
• Organic Activity – Roots of plants and animals burrowing.
• Abrasion – collision of rocks with one another because of gravity, running water, or wind
Agents of Chemical Weathering
• Hydrolysis – minerals chemically reacting with water. Minerals affected may be transported by water causing leaching.
• Carbonation – minerals chemically reacting with carbonic acid (CO 2 + H 2 O) – Stalactites – on ceiling holding tight (tite) – Stalagmites – on ground might make it up
Agents of Chemical Weathering
• Oxidation – metallic minerals chemically reacting with oxygen causing oxidation.
• Acid Precipitation – CO 2 + precipitation • Plant acids – weak acids produced by plants
Rates of Weathering
• Rock Composition – Quartz is least affected; limestone is most affected.
• Amount of Exposure – the more exposure the faster it will weather • Climate – Climates with much rainfall and freezing contribute most. Very hot or very cold = little weathering. Moist/humid = much weathering.
• Topography – temperature/slope
Continental Drift
• Theory stating that continents moved.
• Proposed by Alfred Wegener.
• Evidence included: – Identical fossil remains on the coast of South America and Africa – Age and type of rock on the coastline • Appalachian mountain chain – Glacier debris in Africa and South America
Pangaea
Seafloor Spreading
• Suggested by Harry Hess.
• A break or rift in the earth ’ s crust allowing magma to go out.
• Ocean floor Paleomagnetism
Plate tectonics
• Combines continental drift and seafloor spreading – not only describes continental movement but proposes an explanation on why it moves.
• Two types of earth ’ s crust.
– Oceanic – makes up the ocean floor.
– Continental – makes up the continental landmasses.
Lithospheric Plates
Lithospheric Plates
• Lithosphere – the rigid upper mantle of the earth ’ s crust.
– Divergent Boundary – Plate moving apart.
– Convergent Boundary – Plates moving toward each other.
• Subduction Zone • Plate density – Transform fault boundary – Plate grind past each other.
Convection Cells
This is the major theory on how lithospheric plates move.
In which direction is heat flowing?
Earthquakes
• Caused by transform plate boundary movement.
– Aftershocks • Focus is where the earthquake begins.
• Epicenter is the place directly above the focus.
Seismic Waves
• Primary waves or P waves – fastest and first to be recorded on a seismograph.
• Secondary waves or S waves – second to be recorded on a seismograph.
• Surface waves or L waves – slowest moving waves and last to be recorded.
Locating an Earthquake
Earthquake Measurement
• Richter scale – measures the amount of energy released by an earthquake.
– Largest recorded was 9.6
• Mercalli scale – measures the amount of damage an earthquake causes.
– Measured by Roman numerals I - XII
Tsunamis
• A giant ocean wave usually caused by a major earthquake with its epicenter on the ocean floor.
Earthquake Safety
• Before an earthquake, be prepared.
• During an earthquake, stay calm.
• After an earthquake, be cautious.
Volcanism
• Any activity that includes the movement of magma toward or onto the surface of the earth.
• Magma versus lava.
• Vent – opening through which molten rock flows.
• Volcano – vent and volcanic material.
Pacific Ring of Fire
Hotspots
Volcanic Cones
• Shield Cones – broad, gentle sloping • Cinder Cones – steep slopes caused by explosive eruptions • Composite or stratovolcano – features of both
Shield Cones
Meteorology
• Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere.
• The atmosphere is a layer of gases and particles that surround the earth.
• Influences almost every living thing.
• Weather is the general condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time.
• Climate is the general weather condition over many years.
Composition of Atmosphere
• The most abundant elements in the air are the gases nitrogen ( ± 75%), oxygen ( ± 24%) and argon ( ± 1%).
• The most abundant compounds in the air are the gases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water vapor (H 2 O).
• Ozone (O 3 ) is found in the upper atmosphere. It absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun.
Atmospheric Pressure
• Gravity pulls the gases of the atmosphere toward the earth ’ s surface and holds them there.
• The ratio of the weight of the air to the area of the surface on which it presses is called atmospheric pressure.
• Since there is less air at higher altitudes, there is less weight pressing down. This explains why there is lower atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes.
Barometer
• A barometer is an instrument that measures atmospheric pressure. Two types – mercurial and aneroid. Miami averages ± 30 inches of Hg.
Layers of the Atmosphere
• Four basic layers.
• Troposphere – closest to the earth. Nearly all weather changes occur here.
• Stratosphere – second layer from the earth. Most of the ozone is found here.
• Mesosphere – known for its significant temperature drop.
• Thermosphere – Last layer. Very thin air.
Air Pollution
• Any substance in the atmosphere that is harmful to people, animals, plants or property is an air pollutant.
• Main source is the burning of fossil fuels.
• Gases emitted by the burning of fossil fuels form acids when combined with water in the air – Acid Precipitation.
• International and federal intervention is needed.
Solar Energy
• All the energy the earth receives from the sun travels through space between the earth and the sun as radiation.
• Light is a form of radiation we can; however, there are many other forms that cannot be seen.
• The waves that make up all forms of radiation are called electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Scattering
• Water and dust suspended in the atmosphere reflect and bend the sun ’ s rays. As a result, sunlight comes from all directions.
• Short wavelengths (blue) are easier to scatter making the sky blue.
• Long wavelengths (red) are last to be scattered making the sun red at dawn/dusk.
Reflection
• Of the total amount of solar energy reaching the earth ’ s atmosphere, about 20% is absorbed by the atmosphere.
• About 30% is scattered back into space or reflected by the clouds or surface.
• About 50% is absorbed by the surface.
• The different surfaces on earth vary their absorption and reflection rate.
The Greenhouse Effect
• Gas molecules in the atmosphere trap heat energy and prevent it from escaping back into space. As a result the lower atmosphere becomes warm.
• Essentially, rays come in but can ’ t get out.
• Similar to a vehicle on a hot day.
The Greenhouse Effect
Conduction and Convection
• Not all heating of the atmosphere comes from radiation.
• Conduction has particle to particle contact.
• Convection involves the movement of gases or liquids when they are heated unevenly.
• Cooler air sinks.
• Warmer air rises.
Winds
• More solar energy at equator cause a belt of low pressure.
• The poles have colder, heavier air that tends to sink.
• Pressure differences in the atmosphere at the equator and at the poles create a general movement of air worldwide.
Winds
Breezes
• Gentle winds that extend over distances of less than 100 km are called breezes.
• Land surfaces heat up faster and cool more rapidly than water surfaces do.
• During the day, warm air above the land rises and the cool air above the water moves in to replace it.
• During the night, vice versa.
Atmospheric Moisture
• The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is known as humidity.
• When the air holds all the water vapor it can, it is said to be saturated.
• The higher the temperature, the more water vapor it can hold.
• Relative Humidity compares the mass of water vapor in the air with the amount of water vapor the air can hold at that temperature.
Atmospheric Moisture
• A psychrometer, hair hygrometer or electric hygrometer are instruments used to measure relative humidity.
• Specific humidity refers to the actual amount of water vapor in the air.
• The temperature to which air must be cooled to reach saturation is dew point. Any temperature below dew point will cause dew.
• If the dew point is below the freezing temperature of water, water vapor will change directly into solid ice crystals, or frost.
Dew and frost.
Remember condensation and deposition?
Clouds and Fog
• Clouds and fog are visible masses of tiny water or ice particles suspended in the atmosphere.
• Both originate from water vapor in the air.
• Not all clouds cause rain.
• Fog generally forms near the surface of the earth when air close to the ground is cooled.
Clouds
Fog
Precipitation
• Any moisture that falls from the air to earth ’ s surface is called precipitation.
• Rain is liquid precipitation. Measured with rain gauge.
– Drizzle if < .5 mm in diameter.
• Snow is the most common form of solid precipitation.
• Sleet is ice pellets that form when rain falls through a layer of freezing air.
• Hail is lumps of ice. Can be spherical or irregular.
Air Masses
• A large body of air with uniform temperature and moisture content is called an air mass.
• Air masses over polar regions are usually very cold and dry.
• Air masses over tropical regions are usually warm and moist.
• Air masses are classified according to their source region.
Fronts
• When two unlike air masses meet, density differences usually keep the two air masses separate.
• The boundary that forms between the two air masses is called a front.
• The kind of front that forms depends on how the air masses are moving.
Types of Fronts
• Cold front – when a cold air mass overtakes a warm air mass.
– A long line of thunderstorms, called a squall line, may occur just ahead of a fast moving cold front.
• Warm front – when a warm air mass overtakes a cooler air mass.
• Stationary front – when two air masses meet and neither is displaced.
• Occluded front – when a fast moving cold front overtakes a warm front, lifting the warm air completely off the ground.
Cyclones
• A severe tropical storm, with windspeeds starting at 120km/hr is called a hurricane.
– In the North Pacific they are called typhoons.
• A storm accompanied by thunder, lightning and strong winds is called a thunderstorm.
• A tornado is a whirling, funnel shaped cyclone.
– Tornadoes over the ocean are called waterspouts.
Weather Instruments
• Thermometer – measure temperature.
• Anemometer – measures wind speed.
• Wind vane – determines wind direction.
• Radiosonde – instrument package to investigate weather conditions in the upper atmosphere.
• Radar – uses radio waves to detect precipitation and storms.
• Supercomputers – store weather data, interpret data, and forecast.
A. Sandy flatlands B. Offshore islands
D. Mangrove swamps
Which of the following did NOT cause the formation of the Grand Canyon; F. Weathering H. Water
I. Wind Erosion
Strand E – Earth and Space
• Tides – daily rise and fall of the oceans caused mainly by the moon – Neap – least extreme (happen twice a month) – Spring – most extreme (happen ?)
Astronomy is…
• The study of the universe beyond earth • One of the oldest branches of science • Ancient Babylonians charted the positions of planets and stars 4,000 years ago.
• Modern astronomers use telescopes and other instruments.
Stars
• A star is a body of gases that gives off a tremendous amount of energy in the form of light and heat.
• Stars can vary in size, shape, and color.
• Distances between the stars and earth are measured in light-years; a light year is the distance that light travels in one year.
Star Brightness
• •
Apparent Magnitude –
the brightness of a star as it appears from the earth
Absolute Magnitude –
the true brightness of a star; how bright the star would appear if it was seen from a distance of 32.6 light years
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
• The H-R Diagram graphs the surface temperatures of stars against their absolute magnitudes • Most stars are called
Main-Sequence Stars
, including the sun and other stars in the night sky • Cool, large, bright stars are
Giants or Supergiants
• Hot, small, dim stars are
White Dwarfs
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
What scale is used here?
A Star is Born
• A star begins as a nebula, a cloud of gas and dust.
• The particles of gas and dust come together, and the nebula shrinks in size and begins to spin.
• The shrinking, spinning nebula flattens into a disk of matter called a protostar.
• When nuclear fusion occurs, a prostar begins to generate energy and is classified as a “ star.
”
The Life of a Star
• 1 st Stage: Nebula Protostar Star • 2 nd Stage: Main Sequence Star • 3 rd Stage: Giant/Supergiant • 4 th Stage: White Dwarf • 5 th Stage: Black Dwarf – No Black Dwarfs exist yet
Star Terms
• A white dwarf which explodes, releasing energy, gas, and dust is a nova.
• A star that has tremendous energy and blows itself apart is called a supernova.
• A hole in space with gravity so great that not even light can escape is called a black hole. It is caused by the collapse of a large supernova.
Constellations
• Constellations are star patterns that occur in shifting, but fixed patterns.
• Constellations have been used to locate other stars in the sky or to guide travelers.
• Astronomers recognize 88 constellations • Many are named after mythical creatures.
Constellations
Galaxies
• • • Galaxies are large-scale groups of stars bound together by gravitational attraction.
Spiral Galaxies Elliptical Galaxies
•
Irregular Galaxies
• The Sun is a star in the Milky Way Galaxy, a Spiral Galaxy.
Spiral Galaxy
Elliptical Galaxy
Irregular Galaxy
The Sun
• The center of the sun is the core and, like the rest of the sun, is made entirely of gas.
• The process of nuclear fusion, which creates the sun ’ s energy, occurs in the core.
• The core is surrounded by the radiative zone and the convective zone.
The Sun
’
s Atmosphere
• The photosphere (light sphere) is the innermost layer of the atmosphere and is often considered the surface of the sun.
• The chromosphere, or color sphere, appears to glow with a reddish light.
• The corona, the outermost layer of the atmosphere, prevents the atomic particles from the surface from escaping into space.
The Sun
’
s Composition
Solar Activity
• Sunspots are cool, dark areas of gas within the photosphere that are caused by powerful magnetic fields.
• Prominences are clouds of glowing gases which form huge arches reaching above the sun ’ s surface.
Solar Activity, con
’
t.
• Solar flares are sudden outward eruptions of electrically charged atomic particles.
• Auroras are bands of light that appear in the sky after magnetic storms.
The Solar System
• Includes the sun and the bodies revolving around the sun.
• There are 9 major bodies, or planets, that orbit the sun. • Copernicus suggested a heliocentric, or sun centered universe, in the 1500s. Before, most people believed that the sun, planets, and stars orbited around the earth.
The Inner Planets
• Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are the four planets closest to the sun and are known as the Inner, or Terrestrial, planets.
• All of these planets consist mostly of solid rock, with a metal core. These planets have no rings and a maximum of two moons. • The inner planets have impact craters, which resulted from the collisions of the planets with objects made of rock.
Mercury
• Planet closest to sun • Does not have any moons • Probably has not changed much since the creation of the solar system • Has a thin atmosphere because it is so close to the sun and so small • Huge temperature range (-173C - +427C)
Venus
• Second planet from the sun • Sometimes called the earth ’ s twin; they are almost the same size, mass, and density.
• Average surface temperature is 435C – too hot to support life • May have been oceans and volcanoes on Venus • Atmosphere is 96% CO 2
Earth
• Fifth largest planet • Has one moon • Active Geologic History • Only planet with known life • Only planet with oceans & abundant H 2 O • Average surface temperature is 14C
Mars
• Has 2 moons • Has similar rotation and seasons as the Earth • Geologically Active – Volcanic Activity • Astronomers believe that Mars once had a warmer & wetter climate
The Outer Planets
• Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are called the giant planets and are some of the largest in the solar system.
– Called the Jovian Planets – Larger and more massive than the other planets, but they are far less dense – Have thick atmosphere made of H 2 and He gases – Core of rock, metal, and H 2 O
Jupiter
• Largest planet in the solar system • At least 16 moons and 1 ring • Liquid metallic core • Mostly made of gases • Surface is marked by light- and dark colored bands • Great Red Spot: giant rotating storm that has been raging for several hundred years
Saturn
• Has at least 20 moons and several rings • Spins rapidly • Has bands of colored clouds • Less dense than Jupiter • Has a very complex system of rings
Uranus
• Has at least 15 moons and 11 rings • Unusual Rotation: rotates like a rolling ball • Greenish color indicates that atmosphere contains methane • A core of rock and metals is at the center of this planet
Neptune
• Has 8 moons and possibly 4 rings • Atmosphere made of helium, hydrogen, and methane • Very active weather system • Great Dark Spot: An earth-sized storm is always visible in Neptune ’ s atmosphere
Pluto
• Accidental Discovery • No longer considered a planet Orbits sun in unusually elongated ellipse • Made mostly of frozen methane, rock, and ice • One moon – Charon – which is half as large as Pluto • Pluto could have once been a moon of Neptune, based on its size, unusual orbit, and large moon.
Order of the Planets
Asteroids, Comets, & Meteoroids
• Asteroids are fragments of rock that orbit the sun.
• A comet is a body of ice, rock, dust, methane, and ammonia which orbits the sun in a long ellipse.
• A meteoroid is a small bit of rock or metal that moves through the solar system • A meteor is a meteoroid that enters the earth ’ s atmosphere.
• A meteorite is any part of a meteor that remains after it hits the earth ’ s surface.
Halley
’
s Comet
• A short-period comet that last appeared in 1986. It will reappear in 2062.
The Moon
• A body that orbits a larger body is called a satellite.
• The moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
• The moon ’ s gravity is 1/6 less that on earth.
• The moon has no atmosphere and cannot support life.
• 6 Apollo Spacecraft have visited the moon.
• Temperature ranges from –170C to +134C.
Lunar Surface
• Highlands of light-colored rock.
• Dark areas of solidified lava are called maria; they are the remains of volcanic eruptions.
• Long, deep channels called rilles run through the maria.
Craters
• Craters are bowl shaped depressions found on the surface of the moon. They were most likely created from debris that struck the moon.
Eclipses
• An eclipse occurs when one planetary body passes through the shadow of another.
• When the moon is between the earth and the sun, the shadow of the moon may fall upon the earth, causing a solar eclipse.
• A lunar eclipse occurs when then earth is positioned between the moon and the sun, and the earth ’ s shadow crosses the lighted half of the moon.
Strand E – Earth and Space
• Solar Eclipse – When moon passes between Earth and sun
Strand E – Earth and Space
• Lunar Eclipse – When Earth passes between sun and moon
Solar Eclipse
Lunar Eclipse
The Lunar Cycle
• For much of history, people were able to measure the passing of time by keeping track of the changing phases of the moon.
• Eventually, calendars were created to track the passing of time.
Days, Months, & Years
• A day is the time required for the earth to make one rotation on its axis; 24 hours.
• A lunar month is the time required for the moon to go through one cycle of phases as it orbits the earth; 29.5 days.
• A solar year is the time required for the earth to make one orbit around the sun; 365.24 days.
How do we get our seasons?
Strand E – Earth and Space
• Satellite – object that revolves around a larger object in space – Moons are natural satellites – Artificial satellites serve technological purposes • Difference between probe and satellite?
F The shape of the orbit G The closeness of Mars H The presence of a moon
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Biology is the scientific study of living things. • There are more than 2 million species of living things on the earth. They range in size from microscopic bacteria to huge blue whales and towering redwood trees. • Living things also differ greatly in where and how they live.
Processes of Living Things
• Characteristics include: made up of cells, reproduce, grow, obtain and use energy, and respond to the environment.
• Other characteristics may include: need water, composed of many chemical substances and are highly organized, have a definite structure and size, have a definite life-span, show adaptation, evolve, or change, over long periods of time.
Levels of Organization
• Levels of organization – Subatomic Particles -> Atoms -> Molecules -> Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Organ Systems -> Organism -> Population -> Community -> Ecosystem (Biome) -> Biosphere
Levels of Organization
• Population – the simplest grouping of organisms in nature (all the frogs in a pond).
• Community – all the populations of different organisms within a given area (all the animals in the pond).
• Ecosystem (biome) – geographic area that has a particular type of community (abiotic/biotic).
• Biosphere – portion of the earth in which living things exist (lithosphere/hydrosphere/ atmosphere).
Fields of Biology
• Traditionally, biology has been divided into two major fields. Botany deals with plants, and zoology with animals. Botany and zoology are further divided into various branches and specialized areas of study. But most branches of biology--for example, anatomy (the study of the structure of living things) and genetics (the study of heredity)--apply to both plants and animals.
Breaking it Down . . .
• Biology may also be divided into ecology, physiology, and systematics. Ecology deals with the relationships among living things and between organisms and their environment. Physiology concerns life functions, such as digestion and respiration. Systematics, also called taxonomy, is the scientific classification of plants and animals.
Why is Biology Important?
• Biological research has greatly affected people's lives. For example, farm production has soared as biologists have helped develop better varieties of plants and new agricultural techniques. Biologists also work in industry, especially the pharmaceutical and food industries. Biotechnologists develop new methods for the preparation of products using microorganisms. Discoveries in biology have enabled doctors to prevent, treat, or cure many diseases. Research on the relationships between living things and their environment has helped in the management of wildlife and other natural resources.
Prokaryote v. Eukaryote
• Prokaryote – a single celled organism without a nucleus • Eukaryote - a single celled or multi-cellular organism whose cells contain a distinct membrane-bound nucleus.
Nutrition
• Autotrophs – organisms that can make their own food. Can photosynthesize. Directly or indirectly produce food for heterotrophs.
• Heterotrophs – Must obtain food.
– Herbivores – feed on plants.
– Carnivores – feed on animals • Predators – attack and kill prey • Scavengers – feed on dead animals they find – Omnivores – feed both on plants and animals – Saprobes – obtain nutrients by breaking down the remains of dead plants and animals. Bacteria and fungus fall into this group.
Changes over time
• Fossils – physical remains of organisms.
• Natural selection – the process of organisms to change over time.
• Adaptation – a characteristic or trait that helps an organism survive in its environment.
• Genetic variation – variety in offspring.
• Mutation – greater variation or random changes.
• Extinction – When the organisms die.
• Mass extinction – many species die at one time.
Symbiotic Relationships
• Relationships in which two different organisms live in close association to the benefit of at least one of them.
– Mutualism – both organisms benefit – Commensalism – one organism benefits, the other remains unaffected – Parasitism – one organism benefits, the other is harmed
Specializations
• Biology is such a broad subject that most biologists specialize in some area of study.
– Zoology – study animals • Marine Biology – study life in the oceans • Herpetologist – study reptiles • Ichthyologist – study fish – Microbiology – study viruses and very small things.
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Skeletal – framework/support • Muscular – muscles/help things inside your body move (voluntary/involuntary) • Digestive – breaks down food into substances the body can use • Excretory – removes wastes • Respiratory – getting O 2 into body • Circulatory – transports needed substances and carries away waste
• Nervous – controls and coordinates the bodies activities • Endocrine – regulates the bodies activities by producing hormones • Immune – protects body against disease • Reproductive – system involved in creating a new organism
• Mitosis – cell division/complete process of copying and dividing the whole cell • Plant cell v. Animal cell – Plant cells can have all the animal cells structures and a cell wall and chloroplasts.
What kind of cell is this?
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Osmosis – diffusion of water across a membrane • Diffusion – movement from an area of higher concentration to lesser concentration
• Endoplasmic Reticulum – makes proteins and transports materials • Mitochondria – transforms the energy from the food into a source cells can use “ powerhouse ” • Nucleus – contains cell ’ s DNA • Ribosomes – puts proteins together • Golgi Bodies – helps package and distribute products within the cell
• Cytoplasm – gel-like fluid that takes up most of the space inside a cell • Cell wall – stiff outer barrier of plant cell • Vacuoles – holds waste products • Cell membrane – structure that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell • Nuclear membrane – structure that surrounds the nucleus of a cell • Chloroplast – contains chlorophyll
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Sexual Reproduction – combining cells from two different parents (gametes) • Asexual Reproduction – one parent organism • Traits inherited from parent • Dominant allelle – if present, determines trait • Recessive allelle – masked if dominant allelle is present
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Genotype – set of genes carried by an organism • Phenotype – physical appearance of an organism • Homozygous – TT or tt • Heterozygous - Tt
Strand F – Processes of Life
• Punnett Square – used to predict what traits offspring will have
• Adaptations – structures, behaviors, or other traits in an organism that help it to survive in its environment.
– Ie spiny leaves for cacti to reduce water loss – Beak shapes for types of seeds available • Normal differences within species is genetic variation.
• Random changes are mutations and can be harmful. Ie a brown polar bear.
• Fossils – plant and animal – Pangeae – History of Earth
A bones B ears
D lungs
Strand G – How Living Things Interact with their Environment
• Virus – microscopic particle that can infect the cells of an organism. They replicate themselves only by infecting a host cell.
Organism Classification
• Kingdom • Phylum • Class • Order • Family • Genus • Species
Classification of Living Things
• Monera – –
small, simple single prokaryotic cell bacteria, blue-green algae, and spirochetes
• Protista – –
large, single eukaryotic cell protozoans and algae of various types
• Fungi –
eukaryotic cells
– • Plantae –
do not have their own means of locomotion
– • Animalia –
have their own means of locomotion
–
multicellular filamentous form with specialized funguses, molds, mushrooms, yeasts, mildews, and smuts multicellular form with specialized eukaryotic cells; mosses, ferns, woody and non-woody flowering plants multicellular form with specialized eukaryotic cells; sponges, worms, insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
• Biotic Factor – living things or their materials that directly or indirectly affect an organism in its environment • Abiotic Factor – non-living physical/chemical factors which affect organisms in its environment (light, temperature, type of soil/rock, ph level, water availability, pollutants)
The Water Cycle
• The continuous movement of water from the earth ’ s atmosphere to the earth ’ s surface and back to the atmosphere again.
• Also known as hydrologic cycle.
Water Cycle Processes
• Evaporation – process by which liquid water changes into water vapor (86% from ocean; 14% from freshwater sources).
• Transpiration – process by which plants give off water vapor into the atmosphere.
• Evaportranspiration – combined processes of evaporation and transpiration.
Water Cycle Processes
• Condensation – expanding/cooling causing cloud formation.
• Precipitation – process by which water falls from clouds to the earth (i.e. rain, snow, sleet, and/or hail). About 75% of precipitation lands on the ocean.
• Runoff – water that flows over the land into streams and rivers.
• Groundwater – water that soaks deep in soil and rock
Water Budget
• Continuous cycle of evapotranspiration, condensation and precipitation.
• Local water budget is usually not balanced.
• < evapotranspiration + > precipitation = flooding • > evapotranspiration + < precipitation = drought
Water Conservation
• Water uses and increased demand.
• 90% of water used by cities/industries is returned as waste water.
• Water Conservation • Finding other sources/Desalination (removing salts from ocean water).
The Water Cycle
The Oxygen Cycle
• Natural process that maintains the chemical balance of oxygen in the atmosphere.
• Animals, bacteria, plants, forest fires, burning of fuels (industry) consume oxygen.
• Land and ocean plants produce large quantities of oxygen during daylight.
• The oxygen content is in a state of balance.
The Oxygen Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
• This process maintains the amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere.
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria in soil and roots remove nitrogen from the air, which are vital for plant growth.
• Animals eat plants. Animals defecate or die.
• Denitrification bacteria release the nitrogen back into the air.
The Nitrogen Cycle
Strand G – How Living Things Interact with Their Environment
• Plant Behavior – Gravitropism – response to gravity – Phototropism – response to light – Thigmotropism – response to touch
• Renewable v. Nonrenewable Resources • Threatened – species that may become endangered • Endangered – species that may become extinct • Extinct – a condition in which there are no more living members of a particular species
F Alligators destroy sawgrass.
G Alligators feed on sawgrass.
H Sawgrass helps the alligator travel.
I Sawgrass and alligators depend on each other.
A carbon dioxide B chloroplast
D sunlight
F grasshopper
H mouse I rabbit
A Record when the seeds sprout and begin to grow.
B Make sure the seeds have enough sunlight.
C Predict which seeds will sprout D Plant more seeds.
Strand H – The Nature of Science
• Scientific Method – Problem Statement – Hypothesize – Design Experiment – Experiment – Collect/Analyze Data – Draw Conclusions – Communicate Results
• Variable – factor in the experiment that changes • Control – factor in an experiment that remains the same • Dependent – factor whose value is the result you are testing • Independent – factor the scientist controls • Intervening - unknown factors
• Theory – an idea that is the best explanation of many observations and helps make new predictions • Law – scientific explanation that describes how some part of the world/universe acts under certain conditions
Strand H – The Nature of Science
• Our understanding of the world constantly changes as we learn more about it.
• We come up with a hypothesis based on our previous experience and research.
• All of science is interconnected. Scientific concepts hold true in most disciplines.
• When experimenting, it is important to repeat your experiment to determine reliability of results.
Strand H – The Nature of Science
• There are dozens of observable patterns that we have discussed.
• Scientists must take ethics into consideration when experimenting.
• Human subjects must have informed consent of possible risks of participation and animals must be treated humanely.
• Everyone contributes to the development of science.
• The better the technology, the better our understanding of the world around us.
F G I
A Mealworms prefer pears.
C Mealworms do not prefer apples or pears D Mealworms do not go near apples or pears.