Transcript Ethical Challenges, Decision Making, and Solutions in

Emma L. Daugherty
Professor
Department of Journalism & Mass Communication
California State University, Long Beach
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Let’s talk. How do you define ethics? Share
your thoughts. No right or wrong answers.
◦ What is “ethics”?
◦ What are the characteristics of ethical behavior?
◦ What are the characteristics of unethical behavior?
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You are an account coordinator responsible
for handling the travel expenses for your
team. Your superior is the account
supervisor, but one of the account executives
is using the company credit card for personal
expenses. What do you do?
◦ Nothing
◦ Confront the person
◦ Report it to your superior
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You oversee a public relations department,
and a new company policy requires that you
approve your department’s tax filings. You’re
not a numbers person and don’t fully
understand the documents you must sign.
What do you do?
◦ Sign it, and if there are problems, you’ll say you
didn’t understand the document.
◦ Ask someone with more knowledge to walk you
through the documents.
◦ Sign it, vowing to take an accounting course.
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You are an intern at a prestigious public relations
firm. You’ve been asked to write a press release
about the benefits of a new brand the agency is
handling. After doing research, you realize that
the brand cannot deliver what is promised by the
R&D team. You tell your immediate supervisor,
but he insists that you disseminate the false
information. What do you do?
◦ Write it anyway, using the information provided by R&D.
◦ Meet with your immediate supervisor’s superior and
discuss the dilemma with that individual.
◦ Refuse to write the release.
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You work in a public relations firm at a large
company. Each month you get one paid sick
day, which does not carry over to the next
month. Do you use the paid sick day even
when you are not ill?
◦ Yes, I use it for whatever I want – a vacation, a day
of rest, a time to do errands.
◦ Yes, but only if I have something unavoidable or
unexpectible to handle, such as a sick child at
home or a funeral to attend.
◦ No, I use it only if I am so ill I cannot work or may
be highly contagious to others.
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Aristotle’s Mean
“Moral virtue is a fixed quality of the will,
consisting essentially in a middle state…”
◦ Plato advocated four cardinal virtues:
temperance, justice, courage, and wisdom
◦ Moderation or temperance
◦ Virtuous people develop habits of temperance –
equilibrium and harmony
◦ They are of harmonious character through
everyday habit, guided by reason
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Middle state is most fair and reasonable option (i.e., the handling of
nudity on network television)
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Emphasized moderation – the path of equilibrium and harmony –
a middle state
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Avoid extremes.
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Justice is a mean between indifference and selfish indulgence of
personal interests.
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Balance and proportion developed through everyday habit,
guided by reason – not fanatical or eccentric
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Report alleged rape – but don’t report name of alleged victim
◦ i.e., too much food is unhealthy, too little food is unhealthy
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Confucius’ Golden Mean
“Moral virtue is the appropriate location
between two extremes.”
◦ Human excellence depends on character, not on
social position
◦ Doing nothing vs. exposing everything
◦ Reject both extremes
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German who wrote Groundwork of the Metaphysic of
Morals (1785) and Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
Categorical means unconditional: without
exceptions, without question of extenuating
circumstances
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Do what’s morally right no matter what.
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Follow your conscience.
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Truthtelling always right. Lying, cheating, stealing
always wrong.
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“Act on that maxim which you will to become
a universal law.”
◦ Do what’s morally right no matter the
consequences
◦ No exceptions, no extenuating circumstances
◦ Certain actions – dishonesty, deception – always
wrong
◦ Deception in advertising, public relations, and the
press always wrong
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“Justice, human dignity and truth are
unconditional duties.”
◦ System of ethics commanded by Allah:
 justice*
 human dignity
 truth
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Seek the greatest happiness for the greatest
number.
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British philosopher and utilitarian John Stuart Mill
(1806-1873)
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Consider consequences of actions – how much
harm and benefit would result. Select the action
that benefits the most and is least harmful.
Utilitarianism – promoting the greatest good for
the greatest number of people – what’s best for
the majority?
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“Seek the greatest happiness for the
aggregate whole.”
◦ Utilitarianism – ethical theory proposed by Mills
and Jeremy Bentham that all actions should strive
to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest
number of people
◦ Preventing pain and promoting pleasure only
desirable ends, hedonistic
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Later utilitarians argued that other values,
besides happiness, are worthwhile –
friendship, knowledge, health
Decision-making steps:
◦ Calculate possible consequences of various
options
◦ Then determine how much harm would result in
the lives of those affected, including you
◦ Choose path that maximizes value or minimizes
loss, producing greatest possible balance of good
over evil
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John Rawls’ A Theory of Justice (1971)
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Fairness is fundamental for justice.
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Veil of ignorance – asking individuals to step back
from real circumstances and view the situation by
forgetting about race, class, gender, and similar
factors
Negotiating social agreements based on equality
behind a veil of ignorance. By doing so, risks are
minimized and weaker parties are protected.
A hypothetical social contract is made behind the veil.
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“ Justice emerges when negotiating without social
differentiations.”
◦ “A Theory of Justice” in 1971
◦ Respect, empathy, fairness
◦ Eliminates arbitrary distinctions; step behind barrier
where roles and social differentiations, such as race and
gender, are eliminated
◦ Seen as protecting the weaker party and minimizing
risks
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“Love your neighbor as yourself.”
◦ Agape – Greek word for love; Golden Rule
◦ Giving and forgiving freely and lovingly
◦ Concerned with neighbor’s well being
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“The ‘one-caring’ attends to the ‘cared-for’ in
thought and deeds.”
◦ Love-based ethics: nurturing, caring, affection,
empathy, inclusiveness
◦ Carol Gilligan emphasized relationships,
compassion when resolving conflicts
◦ Nel Noddings: human care central to moral
decision-making – real care requires actual
encounters with specific individuals
 Feminist scholarship – care ethics
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Three central dimensions:
◦ Engrossment = one-caring becomes engrossed in
needs of others
◦ Motivational displacement = one-caring retains
self-interests but moves beyond them to become
empathetic with experiences or views of caredfor
◦ Reciprocity = the cared-for must reciprocate to
complete caring relationship (direct response,
delight in personal growth)
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Dr. Ralph Potter, Harvard Divinity School
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Formulated the model of moral reasoning
◦ The Potter Box
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Definition
Values
Principles
Loyalties
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Purpose
◦ Forces us to get accurate empirical data
◦ Investigate our values
◦ Articulate an appropriate principle
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To reach a responsible decision, we must
clarify the stakeholders who will be affected
by our decision and which stakeholders we
feel especially obligated to support.
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When analyzing ethical dilemmas, we usually
investigate five categories of obligation:
◦ Duty to ourselves
◦ Duty to stakeholders (clients, subscribers,
employees, surrounding community, etc.)
◦ Duty to our own organization
◦ Duty to professional colleagues
◦ Duty to society
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1. Which is worse?
◦ hurting someone's feelings by telling the truth
◦ telling a lie and protecting their feelings
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2. Which is the worse mistake?
◦ to make exceptions too freely
◦ to apply rules too rigidly
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3. Which is it worse to be?
◦ unmerciful
◦ unfair
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4. Which is worse?
◦ stealing something valuable from someone for no good
reason
◦ breaking a promise to a friend for no good reason
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5. Which is it better to be?
◦ just and fair
◦ sympathetic and feeling
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6. Which is worse?
◦ not helping someone in trouble
◦ being unfair to someone by playing favorites
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7. In making a decision you rely more on
◦ hard facts
◦ personal feelings and intuition
8. Your boss orders you to do something that will
hurt someone. If you carry out the order, have you
actually done anything wrong?
◦ yes
◦ no
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9. Which is more important in determining whether
an action is right or wrong?
◦ whether anyone actually gets hurt
◦ whether a rule, law, commandment, or moral principle is
broken
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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hurting feelings (c)/telling lies (j)
make exceptions (j)/apply rules (c)
unmerciful (c)/unfair (j)
stealing (j)/breaking promise (c)
just (j)/sympathetic (c)
not helping (c)/playing favorites (j)
facts (j)/feelings (c)
yes (c)/no (j)
hurt (c)/rule (j)
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Ethics of Justice
◦ Based on abstract, impersonal principles
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Justice
Fairness
Equality
Authority
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Conflict of rights that can be solved by impartial application of
some general principle
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Emphasis on moral principles, laws, or policies, which they
believe should be applied to all equally
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Don’t like to make exceptions based on special circumstances
and worry about setting precedents
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Impartial vs. impersonal
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Could be seen as uncaring, cold, inflexible
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More common with men than women
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Traditional management style
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Justify decisions according to authority,
policies, or other impersonal standards
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Attempts to reduce harm or suffering
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Focus of decision making = specific individuals involved and particular
circumstances of the case
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Solutions tailored to special details to individual cases
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Feel constrained by policies without exceptions
◦ Making exceptions does not phase them
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Responsive to immediate suffering and harm
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Flexible, caring, and subjective
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Respond quickly to changing circumstances
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Not preoccupied with idea of setting precedents
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Reliance on subjectivity and gut can appear as
arbitrary
More common with women and individuals who
define themselves in terms of their relationships with
others
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More situational approach to life
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Management style that is
◦ sensitive to consequences of decisions for individuals
◦ considers consensus building important
◦ wants people to “buy in” rather than simply following
orders
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Public relations is the planned effort to
influence opinion through good character and
responsible performance, based upon
mutually satisfactory, two-way
communication. Cutlip and Center
Public relations is the art and social science
of analyzing trends, predicting their
consequences, counseling leaders, and
implementing programs that serve the
organization’s and the public’s interest.
World Assembly of Public Relations
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Deliberate
Planned
Socially responsible performance
Public interest
Two-way communication
Management function
Conscience of the organization
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Disseminating inaccurate or false information
Disclosing client information
Hiring and firing practices
◦ Stealing employees
◦ Taking accounts from employer
◦ Employees offering company information via social
media
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Intentional billing errors
Making undeliverable claims to clients
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Poor treatment of local community
◦ Polluting environment
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Poor treatment of employees
◦ Requiring long working hours, unreasonable
demands
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Poor treatment of customers
◦ Selling harmful product
◦ Lying about product benefits
◦ Not honoring claims and promises
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Lying to company shareholders
Salary discrimination
Sexual harrasment
Home-work balance issues
Conflicts of interest
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Ivy Lee
◦ First to advocate factual and truthful release of
information to the media and saw the need for
good corporate policies and performance in order
to get favorable opinion
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Edward Bernays
◦ Believed that good performance properly publicized
gained the public’s favorable opinion and support
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Seven Principles of Public Relations Management
◦ Tell the truth.
Provide an accurate picture of the company's character,
ideals and practices.
◦ Prove it with action.
Public perception of an organization is determined 90
percent by what it does and ten percent by what it says.
◦ Listen to the customer.
Understand what the public wants and needs. Keep top
decision makers and employees informed about public
reaction to company products, policies and practices.
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Manage for tomorrow.
Anticipate public reaction and eliminate practices
that create difficulties. Generate goodwill.
◦ Conduct public relations as if the whole company
depends on it.
Corporate relations is a management function. No
corporate strategy should be implemented without
considering its impact on the public. The public
relations professional is a policy maker.
◦ Realize a company's true character is expressed by its
people.
The strongest opinions – good or bad – about a company
are shaped by the words and deeds of its employees. As
a result, every employee – active or retired – is involved
with public relations. Corporate communications must
support each employee's capability to be an honest,
knowledgeable ambassador to customers, friends,
shareowners and public officials
◦ Remain calm, patient and good-humored.
Lay the groundwork for public relations miracles with
consistent, calm and reasoned attention to information
and contacts. When a crisis arises, remember that cool
heads communicate best.
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ADVOCACY
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HONESTY
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EXPERTISE
◦ We serve the public interest by acting as responsible
advocates for those we represent. We provide a voice in the
marketplace of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid informed
public debate.
◦ We adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth in
advancing the interests of those we represent and in
communicating with the public.
◦ We acquire and responsibly use specialized knowledge and
experience. We advance the profession through continued
professional development, research, and education. We
build mutual understanding, credibility, and relationships
among a wide array of institutions and audiences.
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INDEPENDENCE
◦ We provide objective counsel to those we represent.
We are accountable for our actions.
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LOYALTY
◦ We are faithful to those we represent, while
honoring our obligation to serve the public interest.
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FAIRNESS
◦ We deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors,
peers, vendors, the media, and the general public.
We respect all opinions and support the right of
free expression.
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Protecting and advancing the free flow of accurate and
truthful information is essential to serving the public
interest and contributing to informed decision making in a
democratic society.
Intent:
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Guidelines:
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◦ To maintain the integrity of relationships with the media,
government officials, and the public.
◦ To aid informed decision-making.
◦ A member shall:
 Preserve the integrity of the process of communication.
 Be honest and accurate in all communications.
 Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which the
practitioner is responsible.
 Preserve the free flow of unprejudiced information when giving or
receiving gifts by ensuring that gifts are nominal, legal, and infrequent.
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Promoting healthy and fair competition among
professionals preserves an ethical climate while
fostering a robust business environment.
Intent:
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Guidelines:
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◦ To promote respect and fair competition among public
relations professionals.
◦ To serve the public interest by providing the widest
choice of practitioner options.
◦ A member shall:
 Follow ethical hiring practices designed to respect free and
open competition without deliberately undermining a
competitor.
 Preserve intellectual property rights in the marketplace.
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Open communication fosters informed decision
making in a democratic society.
Intent:
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Guidelines:
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◦ To build trust with the public by revealing all information
needed for responsible decision making.
◦ A member shall:
 Be honest and accurate in all communications.
 Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which
the member is responsible.
 Investigate the truthfulness and accuracy of information
released on behalf of those represented.
 Reveal the sponsors for causes and interests represented.
 Disclose financial interest (such as stock ownership) in a client's
organization.
 Avoid deceptive practices.
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Client trust requires appropriate protection of
confidential and private information.
Intent:
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Guidelines:
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◦ To protect the privacy rights of clients, organizations,
and individuals by safeguarding confidential
information.
◦ A member shall:
 Safeguard the confidences and privacy rights of present,
former, and prospective clients and employees.
 Protect privileged, confidential, or insider information gained
from a client or organization.
 Immediately advise an appropriate authority if a member
discovers that confidential information is being divulged by
an employee of a client company or organization.
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Avoiding real, potential or perceived conflicts of interest
builds the trust of clients, employers, and the publics.
Intent:
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Guidelines:
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◦ To earn trust and mutual respect with clients or employers.
◦ To build trust with the public by avoiding or ending situations that
put one's personal or professional interests in conflict with
society's interests.
◦ A member shall:
 Act in the best interests of the client or employer, even subordinating
the member's personal interests.
 Avoid actions and circumstances that may appear to compromise good
business judgment or create a conflict between personal and
professional interests.
 Disclose promptly any existing or potential conflict of interest to
affected clients or organizations.
 Encourage clients and customers to determine if a conflict exists after
notifying all affected parties.
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Public relations professionals work constantly to
strengthen the public's trust in the profession.
Intent:
◦ To build respect and credibility with the public for the
profession of public relations.
◦ To improve, adapt and expand professional practices.
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Guidelines:
◦ A member shall:
 Acknowledge that there is an obligation to protect and
enhance the profession.
 Keep informed and educated about practices in the
profession to ensure ethical conduct.
 Actively pursue personal professional development.
 Decline representation of clients or organizations that
urge or require actions contrary to this Code.
 Accurately define what public relations activities can
accomplish.
 Counsel subordinates in proper ethical decision
making.
 Require that subordinates adhere to the ethical
requirements of the Code.
 Report ethical violations, whether committed by PRSA
members or not, to the appropriate authority.
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Pause
Think about consequences
Use theory and knowledge
Reflect on actions
Know that unethical decision making in public
relations will always escalate into additional
problematic situations
Remember the messages of the founders:
Ivy Lee, Edward Bernays, Arthur W. Page