Transcript No Slide Title

Chapter One: Finding out what’s
involved
• Dissertations and theses come in all shapes and
sizes
• Different departments / different programmes of
study have different rules:
– e.g. will topics be given or must students find them
• postgraduate research is all about respecting these
rules
• If it is not immediately obvious what’s expected,
student MUST find out as early as possible
Finding out what’s involved
• Timeframe and specific deadlines
• Penalties for being late
• Marking scheme:
– is marking exclusively based on thesis?
– What else will be graded?
– How important are the other elements of the course work?
• Specific requirements for the empirical / theoretical
work
– e.g. number of interviews, sites or questionnaires
Finding out what’s involved
• This attention to what is expected should be
sustained throughout the process
• Discussions with thesis adviser / supervisor must
deal specifically with what must be done / is left to
be done
• It is not a silly question to ask whether your work
is achieving the requirements for First Class etc…
• The closer you get to the end of the process, the
more specific the feedback should be
Chapter Two: Selecting a
research topic
• What is a topic?
• How does one go about finding one?
• What are the stages in getting a research topic
accepted?
• What happens after?
What is a topic?
• Some kind of statement describing what the
research is about
• more or less detailed - more or less work remains
to be done
• reference to previous work?
• how to carry out the research?
• a “good enough” starting point
• must respect a number of characteristics
(1) Enjoyable research topic!
To my way of thinking, there are four reasons for choosing one
group over another: the group should be fun, accessible,
convenient and suitable. Lest these criteria be dismissed as
frivolous, let me explain. Fieldwork is exhausting, difficult,
psychologically demanding and time consuming. The more
fun and interesting the group, the greater the likelihood that
your interest and commitment will be sustained. A fun group
can be just as important as a dull group, and a lot easier to
study (Browne, 1976; p.56).
Why enjoyable:
• Personal project
• keep attention / motivation to a maximum degree
• MBS thesis is hard, maybe impossible without
sustained commitment
• trade-off between a topic given to you by someone
else and a personal topic that takes time to come
together
• want to be able / happy to talk about it afterwards
(2) Researchable Topic
• Fits available resources and time constraints
• does not require impossible access to information
sources - interview with Head of NY stock
exchange
• respondents / informants can be found who are
willing to talk - Kennedy’s assassination
• reliable information can be found - Beef Tribunal
(3) Suitable Area and Safe Topic
•
•
•
•
•
Can a supervisor be found?
safe topic where previous research is available
operate under the umbrella of well-charted theory
some proven methods can be used
clear trade-off between originality and easiness
Safe Topic (Bis)
• Can I see the wood for the trees?
• how easily can research questions be derived?
• if totally uncharted, there might be too many ways
to attack the problem
• some students never find out what their research
was about!! It really helps if you do...
Judging trade-offs
•
•
•
•
•
Students should not rely on their judgement
Supervisors are there to help them
a topic should not be discarded just because…
fine-tuning can make all the difference
experienced researchers have a feel for such things
How important is a good
Research Topic?
The most critical step in the research process is the definition of
the research topic. This step must produce a clear and
unambiguous statement of the objectives of the study. An
unambiguously stated objective is essential in guiding the
decisions and tradeoffs that are required in the next and
subsequent steps (Jenkins, 1985; p.103).
• Nevertheless, students should not overemphasise
the importance of the choices made at the outset as
many changes can and will intervene during the
course of their project (Good Enough)
At the end of the day
• The research topic must be reasonably clear and
well-defined
• But not all problems can be solved at that stage
• certain types of projects begin in the Fog …
hopefully, they come out of it
• a good supervisor will be satisfied with a positive
statement of intent
• And, research projects NEVER stick to their
original topics!
Process
• A research topic is presented and refined using a
document called Research Proposal
• few guidelines can meaningfully be put forward to
describe what such a document should look like
• they come in all shapes and sizes and that’s the
way it should be!
• Read, read, read and read… then start writing a
short document
Proposals
•
•
•
•
•
5 to 10 pages of explanations
10 to 20 solid references
a clear statement of the What of the research
a clear statement of Why this research is of interest
maybe some indications of how similar studies
have been carried out
• maybe maybe some notions of who to talk to (or a
potential case study)
Example 1: a safe topic
• the investigation of the Application of Business
Process Re-engineering in a Multi-national
Organisation using a case study and identifying
the actual company that is going to be studied. The
key informant has already been identified and a
standard literature review is presented in
summarised form.
Example 2: a topic that could be
good?!
• research proposal that argues that the circulation
of information between the top managers of an
organisation is crucial to the performance of that
organisation. It presents a number of references
reporting on relevant research in the area and
concludes that more research is required to better
understand how the communication amongst the
top managers of an organisation can be improved.
It suggests that focusing on a group of managers
in one or several sites and interviewing a number
of them is a good vehicle to investigate the topic.
Which is the best?
•
•
•
•
•
•
At opposite ends of the “safe” spectrum
But, both were successful topics
both took about 12 months to investigate
first one was safe
Why? (page 12-13)
second one was half crazy
state of preparedness of both proposals is not at all
related to the amount of work put in!
}
At the end of the day
•
•
•
•
Research proposals are not an end in themselves
in some programmes, they carry a mark…
but not in this one
proposal is a vehicle for discussion between the
various stakeholders
• also a vehicle to keep track of the initial work
done by students: reading, thinking, understanding
• incremented bit by bit until...
Misconceptions about the
proposal
•
•
•
•
•
It should follow a number of set rules
it should follow a certain template
it is written in one stage when the time has come
it is a definitive document
it will guide the project to its very end
Validation of Proposals
•
•
•
•
Proposals are validated in presentations to staff
these sessions are not like going to the slaughter!
opportunity to talk to experienced researchers
opportunity to get good, more up-to-date, more
relevant references
• important feed back is obtained - do not go in
there to hide weaknesses
• seek clarifications for anything that is still unclear
• problems discovered at that early stage are no
problem
What is a presentation
•
•
•
•
Talk time 10 minutes
clear statement of goal
explanation of any difficult terminology
brief review of existing research:
(1) What is the extent of current research in the subject area / research
topic? Who said so?
(2) Is that subject area / research topic worthy of further research?
(3) Where does your chosen research project fit into the answers to
the first two questions above?
• some idea of methods used
• not expected to have all the answers
What then??
• Once proposal is deemed finished, research
process re-starts
• proposal is still a good discussion document
(potential interviewees etc...)
• document may be used as a starting point to write
the literature review
• slot more and more information and references in
the original proposal.
Conclusion
• Finished product will seem radically different
from what was in the proposal
• not a problem
• not a weakness
• just a reflection of the tortuous nature of research
work
• also convenience for researcher (e.g. data
available)
Practical session on writing
proposals
• 6 articles relevant to the study of information for
managers
• some easier than others
• presenting various methodological orientations
• 6 groups of 3 students - each group gets one paper
• goal of the session: the papers must be used to
write a proposal on a topic revolving around the
general theme: Managers and Information
How do we go about it?
• 20 minutes to read the papers individually
• 15 minutes to talk about them in groups and
prepare a presentation
• 6 times 10 minutes to present the papers
• a well-deserved 10 minute break in the middle
• A quick discussion on potential topics that emerge
from the articles presented
Then...
• Students select a potential topic
• students write a 1000 words proposal using all the
papers on the model described last week
• proposal include research questions that will be pursued
• proposals go in the research folder
• Freddy reads them
• students describe their individual proposals (next week)
• open discussion on the proposals that students put
forward (next week)
Presentations
• Presentations should aimed at reporting on:
–
–
–
–
–
–
general objective / theme of paper
key elements in the lit review section (key references)
frameworks that could be useful for us
specific research questions
methods used
key findings that we can use
• 5 minutes to present paper using transparencies
• 5 minutes for other students to find out as much as
they can about the papers
• the better the presentations, the better the proposals,
or else, make sure you ask many questions
The papers are:
1 - Information as signal and symbol (Feldman and March, 1981)
2 - Making Executive Information Systems more effective (McLeod
and Jones, 1986)
3 - What effective general managers really do (Kotter, 1999)
4 - Information Media and Source patterns across managerial levels
(Jones, Saunders and McLeod, 1988)
5 - The Manager’s job folklore and fact (Mintzberg, 1975)
6 - Executive’s perception of their information sources (McLeod,
Jones and Poitevent, 1984)
Feed Back on Proposals
• No more hand-written stuff
• Also work on general presentation from now on
• Also work on style:
–
–
–
–
no I, we etc…
punctuation
referencing
don’t overemphasise
We expect evolution
throughout the year
• Respect authors and their work
• Support in required for all statements (cf lit review)
Also
• By and large, proposals did not discriminate
enough: no area is being delineated
• In real LRs, more support from a broader range of
sources / authors will be required
• e.g. too much Mintzberg / findings are only results
from one study, there might be others
• Proposals were also too much like essays => end
must be different and include questions
• Quite normal not to know what topic to follow at
the stage => evolution from here on
Research reports in diaries
• Folder MUST be done on on-going basis - three at
a time reports are useless for students
• students must learn the process so they can do it
again efficiently in May / June
• Zero tolerance on deadlines - too much trouble
• Reports are sometimes too close to the lectures
• should reveal a more personal experience - what it
all means - show message was received
• reports might be the forum for evolution of topic
Finding and studying existing
research
• Next step after writing the proposal
• proposal does not solve problems…it asks
questions
• existing research must be sought to guide
researcher
• benefit of knowing what has come before
• contents / findings / methods used / problems
encountered / solutions found
In the context of an MBS
programme
• Important aspect of thesis
• important part of assessment (NC)
• research not necessarily very original or very
representative (sample sizes), but well
documented
• conventional:
demonstrate the additional understanding and knowledge
gained by students in a particular domain and to show their
ability to synthesise and organise the material selected
within the context of a well defined research project
Functions of the Literature
Review
(1) to demonstrate the underlying assumptions behind the
research topic (e.g. provide a rationale);
(2) to show that the researcher is knowledgeable about the
related research, and research traditions in the subject area;
(3) to help in identifying gaps in the previous research within
which the proposed study can be placed;
(4) to aid in refining and redefining the research questions
towards placing them within the context of the research
tradition in the subject area.
After Rosmann (1989)
Practically...
• The lit review constitutes the theoretical foundation of
the research project
• outlines the boundaries of the research domain
considered
• presents research results that justify the focus on the
research topic and those that are going to be used in
designing the study
• in a coherent chapter (or series of two or three
chapters)
• conclusions:
a concise statement of the research objective and an outline
of the research questions that are being pursued
Sourcing Material
• Abundance rather than drought
• Library, CD-ROM search, Internet, supervisors,
other staff
• Traditional sources are totally overloaded
• Also, access is far easier for very new stuff (e.g.
indexes databases start in 1990)
• Regrettable because:
We still enjoy reading the book from time to time and are surprised more
often by the things that we knew then, but have forgotten, than by the
things that we know now, but did not know then (p.1).
March and Simon (1993)
Examples:
• Managers’ work:
Fayol (1916), Carlson (1951), Steward (1967),
Mintzberg (1973, 1975, 1976)
• Organisational behaviour:
Simon (1957,1977), Galbraith (1974, 1977)
• Psychology:
Maslow (1943, 1954, 1970), Festinger (1957),
Milgram (1974)
• Social Psychology:
Asch (1951), Bavelas (1948), Lewin (1951)
What does a LR look like
• Students may be unsure / puzzled initially
• Hard to provide strict guidelines - contingency
approach
• Iterative process somewhat like proposal writing
• careful examination of papers / books
• also, reading examples of previous research
projects (MBS / MSc)
• unstructured process
As a result
• LRs grow rapidly and may go out of control:
– The structure may be lacking in clarity and purpose
– The balance between the different sections may be
wrong
– There might still be a number of gaps in the analysis
presented
– The emphasis may be wrong
• Consequence of the process followed
• OK once corrected at some point
Proper LR writing
• Style must be proper
– I, we, us, our … are all forbidden
– avoid making general statements such as it is obvious that
– common sense is not sufficient for including an argument
or an idea in a literature review
• argumentation must be clear and purposeful
– stringing together paragraphs presenting the results of
different studies without “doing anything” with them is
not enough
– analysis must be done!!
– A mere catalogue does not any value
Proper LR writing (2)
• A synthesis of the material must be presented - i.e.
show how it all fits together
• diagrams are a good vehicle for that:
Organisational
Strate gies
IS Impact on Strategy
Ward and Griffiths (1996)
Porter & Millar (1985)
Connecting Busines s Strategy
to Information Systems
Vitale (1986); Earl (1989, 1992)
Ward & Griffiths (1996)
End Use rs
IS P lan
IS - End User Interaction
Fahy & Murphy (1996);
Nonaka (1991); Ciborra (1988);
Earl & Hopwood (1980)
Implementing
Teams of Experts
Guss (1999);
Business Plan
Imple menting
Business &
IS P rojects
Business Be nefit
Information Exchange
between Functional Areas
Boynton et al (1994);
Earl (1992); Zuboff (1988)
Finally...
• Clear unambiguous statement of research
objectives
• also an outline of the questions (i.e. directions of
research)
• Maybe a nice framework that can be validated or
augmented in the rest of the research
• the How can be left to the next chapter (research
methodology)
Additional guidelines for LR:
• As soon as LR has reached a few pages in
volumes, it must be accompanied by
• a bibliography
• a table of content
• an abstract - specifying what is done / remains to
be done in relation to the content
What is a bibliography?
• alphabetical listing of books, journal articles, web
pages and any other sources used
• presented at the end of the thesis
• increment as you go along (not to lose any refs.)
• specific format to be used:
Book: Author(s) surname, initials; Year of publication; Title of book; Place of publication; Publisher.
Article in book: Author(s) surname, initials; Year of publication; Title of article; Title of book; Editor(s)
surname, initials; Page numbers; Place of publication; Publisher.
Article: Author(s) surname, initials; Year of publication; Title of article; Title of journal; Volume and issue
number; Page numbers.
Table of contents:
•
•
•
•
Better to automate (saves time)
Use MS word styles and Insert Table/Index menu
Headings One, Two and Three
Then:
Referencing work
• Two types: direct quote or just argument support
• Direct quote is used when the author illustrated
your point + said it so well you can’t paraphrase:
“Re-engineering, like democracy, religion and marriage,
is theoretically a sensible concept. But like every good idea
promoted as a solution to all ills that ail, it has the potential
to serve the opposite purpose”
(Strassmann, 1994; p. 119)
• Argument support: author argued a similar point
=> integrate his/her name in the sentence or add it
in brackets at the end.
The important question is not how scientific the research design is,
but how it serves to generate the level of proof wanted in the research
and to reflect the state of existing knowledge in the research area (Miller, 1991).
Also
• Obviously, if more than one author supports your
view, you can add several names in brackets
• Try to always document your page numbers
• Try to be consistent in your use of referencing
style
• Document your sources as you go along - a lost
reference at the end may mean you have to
remove it from the text.
Using the Web as a source of
material
• See handout
• but remember Web is a complement, not the whole
thing
• also remember it is not always a time saver
• referencing must be done consistently as well
• WEB addresses are relatively lengthy => use an
abreviated form in the text (eg:
The Department of AFIS has 19 full-time staff, with research interests in
managerial accounting, corporate finance and information systems (w-UCC1)
• Then in biblio:
w-UCC1: http://www.ucc.ie/acad/afis.html
Ethics!!!
•
•
•
•
•
•
Important point for MBS students
Plagiarism is a deadly sin…punished as one
Always attribute arguments / phrases
Never type Verbatim unless it’s a quote
Only reference material YOU have read
If cross-referencing, state that you are doing it:
“Field method is not an exclusive method in the same sense that
experimentation is. Field method is more like an umbrella of activity beneath
which any technique may be used”
(Schatzman & Strauss, 1973; p.14, cited in Burgess, 1982).
• By and large, you won’t get away with it
Publishing
• Do it right from day one - time saved at the end is
precious
• follow a template (your own or a generic one)
• your supervisor should probably validate the style
at the outset
• See handout for the minimum requirements
What is a LR: illustrations
• main functions of LR:
– synthesis
– set up research question / key aspect of research
– etc...
• example 1: using a diagram to set up a key aspect
of the research
• example 2: presenting a synthesis of the literature
that has never been done before
• example 3: density referencing
Example 1 after Adam (1999)
• Numerous units of analysis have been used in IS
research:
– individual (manager)
– group (eg groupware)
– organisation
• Strengths and weaknesses
• Not mutually exclusive??
Research Methodologies
• How to do research - methods and techniques
• Philosophical level: in what Great Perspective?
• Rigorous approach means adoption of a paradigm:
– Scientific Paradigm
– more modern paradigm
• Ad-Hoc approach means select techniques more
likely to yield good results
• for MBS students, second approach is suitable, but:
– must be aware of theoretical debates
– put forward a robust research design
Paradigm
• Paradigm is a set of basic beliefs dealing with first
principles and representing
a worldview that defines, for its holder, the nature of the world, the
individual’s place in it and the range of possible relationships to
that world and its parts (Guba and Lincoln, 1994; p.107).
• Beliefs are basic in the sense that they must be accepted
simply on faith (however well argued)
• Possible to discuss whether these questions totally
determine the practice of research
Guba and Lincoln’s Key questions
The ontological question - which deals with the
form and nature of reality - i.e., ‘what is it that can
be known about the world’;
The epistemological question - which deals with
the nature of the relationship between the
researcher and what can be known;
The methodological question - which deals with
the ways in which the inquirer can go about
finding out what he or she believes can be known.
Leading Paradigm: Scientific
• the scientist is different from the man in the street
because he / she
systematically builds his theoretical structures, tests them for
internal consistency, and subjects them to empirical testing
(Kerlinger, 1973; p. 3).
• Furthermore, the scientist,
knowing ‘selection tendency’ to be a common
psychological phenomenon, carefully guards his
research against his own preconceptions and
predilections and against selective support for his
hypotheses (Kerlinger, 1973; p. 4).
What Scientific Research is
To satisfy our doubts, therefore, it is necessary that a method should
be found by which our beliefs may be determined by nothing
human, but by some external permanency - by something upon
which our thinking has no effect (...) The method must be such
that the conclusions of every man shall be the same. Such is the
method of science. Its fundamental hypothesis (...) is this: there
are real things, whose characters are entirely independent from
our opinions (Buchler, 1955; p.18).
Question for us
• Should social sciences follow the rules set for
physical sciences?
• Debate between Positivists and Interpretivists
• Fundamentalists on both sides of the divide
• Journals are one or the other
• Also a bit of US versus Europe
Interpretivist Paradigm
We cannot look at human society without some conception of
human nature. I cannot become a social scientist without
facing the question who ‘I’ am. This constitutes a radical
difference from physical science. It is possible to study the
behaviour of material objects without being constantly
brought face to face with myself (Trigg, 1985; p.205)
• not interesting to oppose the human sciences and the
natural ones based on
– the degree of accuracy in the results,
– on the nature of the mental operations involved,
– on the conditions of observation.
• fundamental difference is in the subject of the study (i.e.,
human/non-human) and the nature of the relationship
between the scientist and the objects of his or her inquiry
Nice Quote
So many things separate the geologist from his minerals, whereas
the historian or the psychologist are very near their objects:
other human beings. It does not mean that researchers in these
areas aspire to less accuracy or refuse the principles of reason,
but that they refuse to eliminate what makes the specificity of
the social sciences: the community of the subject and the
object and the inescapable intertwining of the facts and the
values (Todorov, 1989; p.10).
Other Specificity of Social
Sciences
• Difficulty in interpreting results (eg: ethnography)
• Redfield (1930) and Lewis (1951) studied the same
Mexican village 19 years apart
– one concludedthat the village was a harmonious, conflictfree and well integrated environment, the other that it was
ridden with fear, conflict, individualism and divisions
• Slater (1976) and Gartrell (1979) studied
populations in Tanzania
– the former reported these populations to be ‘like zombies’,
reticent and hostile while the latter found them to be
warm, generous and open.
Other side of the story
• Researchers swear allegiance to a paradigm in
order to get published
• Who knows what they really do?
• Most important is to put together a realistic
research design
• McGrath et al. (1982) have formalised this
Judgement Calls in Research
all of those decisions (some big, some small, but all
necessary and consequential) that must be made
without the benefits of a fixed, “objective” rule that one
can apply, with precision, like a template or a pair of
callipers (McGrath, 1982; p.13).
• Analogy with Baseball where
such judgement calls accumulate in their effects; and,
indeed, they quite literally determine the outcome of most
games (p.13).
Conclusions
• no area of the process of scientific inquiry escapes
these judgement calls.
• Eg: decisions made by researchers regarding
– choice of a strategy
– the research design
– the measurement tools, etc.
• Also, research process as it really takes place is far
less orderly than described in textbooks
Practical Conclusions
• Debate about philosophy of science boils down to
one crucial belief that
– on the one hand, social inquiry can be regulated
formally in a generic fashion, or,
– on the other hand, that
one loses a great deal when one attempts to fashion sound
research entirely on the basis of general decision rules
routinely applied (McGrath, 1982; p.14).
• Contingency approach where all potential
methods are used based on their specific merit in
view of research goals
Judging the +/- of methods
Illustration
• Question asked + state of the debate may suggest
what methods to use
• According to Sauer (1993),
– the actual experience of conducting a systematic and
rigorous case study brings home the complexities of the
information systems process. (...) the complex social
and political web in which computing developments are
undertaken becomes salient (p.133).
• But mixed designs that use different methods are
more robust
A Framework to Show
Progress
• Before undertaking data collection - proving that
you know enough
• enough about questions / informants / what you
are going to obtain
• not about having preconceived ideas - rather about
planning ahead
• Thinking about what data will come up and what
it will mean
• Setting up the analysis phase
Example: a previous MBS thesis
The
Research
Research Question
Question
Analysing the Contribution of the
different functional groups along the
various stages of the decision process
The
research
question
is split into
the
various
subelements
it invokes
in its
answering
Identify the main organisational actors
and groups of actors who were involved
in the project and what their roles
entailed.
At what different stages did the different
functional groups and individuals make
contributions to the process?
Whose contribution had critical
significance in the achievement of the
objective(s) of the task?
Where did the steering come from? Did
many diverse functional groups interact
together?
How and why was it decided to involve
these groups at these stages of the
process? Was it part of the original
project plan to include these groups at
this stage?
Primary Focus /
Rationale
Informants or other
data sources
Understand who
contributed what and
when as the project
unfolded?
Map out the people and
departments required to
implement this project
(internal and external)
Pinpoint the contribution
of different groups along
the process
Identify the depts /people
at the different stages of
the process
Identify the different
leaders at the different
stages
Describe the decision
making processes
regarding the team
structure.
Top Managers,
Business Managers,
IS Staff
Top managers, Project
Leader
Top Managers,
Business Managers, IS
Staff, users.
Top Managers,
Business Managers, IS
Staff, users
Top Managers,
Business Managers, IS
Staff
Top Managers,
Business
Managers/Users, IS
Staff
Table 5: Abstract from a study framework (after Deasy, 1999).
Data Sources
and Informants
The Expected
Outcomes
Notes
The The
lastcolumn
column
prove
will will
prove
useful
useful in in
discussions
discussions
with
withsupervisors
supervisors
and
and potential
potential
interviewees.
interviewees.
Links to
relevant
Links
to
areas
of the
relevant areas
Literature
of the Literature
Review can
Review
alsocan
be also
be noted.
noted.
Use of the framework
•
•
•
•
•
Show off in front of your supervisor
add to your own confidence
talk to potential interviewees / other informants
backbone of questionnaire
helps you to think about what’s ahead in a
constructive way
Data collection: surveys
• Mail / email surveys of “the field”
• operates by sending a questionnaire to a sample
population
• Goal: finding a population that is representative of
“the field”
• setting up this sample is the first key to the
research robustness
• sources of names and addresses
Specific Difficulties
• Most of the work done up front (sample,
questionnaires)
• questionnaire must be impeccable
• administration of the mail survey
• who filled the questionnaire!
• response rate !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
• Bias
• But analysis should be easier?!?!?
Sampling
• Some justifiable scheme must be used (Patton 1990)
• Purpose-built - e.g. stratified based on a particular
criterion Type of Sampling Strategy Purpose
1. Extreme or deviant case
2. Intensity sampling
Of course:
not all strategies
can be pursued
at the same time
3. Maximum variation
sampling
4. Homogeneous sampling
5. Typical case sampling
6. Stratified purposeful
sampling
7. Criterion sampling
8. Confirming and
disconfirming cases
9. Opportunistic sampling
10. Convenience sampling
Learning from highly unusual cases or manifestations of the
phenomenon under study - eg: outstanding successes or
failures
Information-rich cases that manifest the phenomenon
intensely, but not extremely: e.g. good students,below
average students…
Purposeful picking of a wide range of variations on
dimensions of interest.
Focuses on reducing variations and simplifying analysis
Illustrate what is normal or average
Illustrate the characteristics of a certain sub-group of cases
Isolate cases that meet some criterion – e.g. children who
were abused while in hospital
Elaborate and deepen initial analysis, seek exceptions and test
variability of the phenomenon
Follow new leads during field work, take advantage of the
unexpected
Attempt to save time, money and effort; poor rationale
Table 6.3: Purposeful sampling strategies (after Patton, 1990)
Testing the questionnaire
• Put together the questionnaire (use the framework
for progress)
• send it to a number of “trusted” respondents - 5?
• See what they say (did they think it was OK?):
–
–
–
–
length
meaning
clarity
confidentiality
• Make amendments
• Send!
Administration
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Responses are coming in (Bulk in first 2 weeks)
keep track of what arrived when (date the envelops)
react fast (response rate can be “guessed”)
Do a phoning to inquire what’s happening
if in trouble, send more
monitor evolution of flow
keep your supervisor posted
Examples of previous theses
• IS security strategy 1995:
– Irish sample
– 220 sent 103 received => 98 good ones = 44.5%
• Rapid Application Development 1997:
– Irish sample
– 300 sent, 37 received 1/3 had not heard of RAD = 12%
(8%)!!
• Lotus Notes usage in organisation:
– Worldwide
– email survey
– several hundreds sent, initially 10 received! Several
months of work to reach 50
Checking the responses
• Look for failed questionnaires that must be
discarded
• investigate non-response using late respondents as
surrogates (Oppenheim, 1996; Wallace and Mellor, 1988)
• Analysis of who responded and who did not is
interesting in itself
• Set up a framework for analysing the data (SPSS?)
• Hope for a 100 questionnaires
Problems!
•
•
•
•
Not enough questionnaires
No pattern in data - all responses are the same
Additional work may be required to boost study
e.g. interviews with some of the respondents to
confirm / complement findings
• can use framework again with added columns to
check if enough covered
Questionnaire techniques
•
•
•
•
Open ended / close ended
predefined categories coming from literature
likert scale
richness versus ease of analysis
Check list
• Scrutiny must apply to the phrasing and sequence of
questions
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Is the question necessary? Does it map to a question?
Is the question a repetition of a previous one?
Can the data be obtained in a different fashion?
Does the question contain only one idea?
Should additional questions be asked to complement this one?
Can / will the respondent answer the question?
Is it clear / well phrased?
Is the proper format used (Y/N, likert scale…)?
Would a direct question be more efficient?
Would an open question bring more richness?
Is of questionnaire sequencing optimal?
Could be rearranged so that an answer precludes the need for
other questions?
– Is it OK for duration?
Exercise!
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Break into 3 groups
Role of computer in education
isolate 3/4 main research question
use framework to break it down into what you
must know about them
identify target respondents
create a questionnaire (max 20/25 questions)
Pick 2/3 innocent victims
send / collect / report on findings (over next two
weeks)
Name of interviewees for
questionnaires
• Eleanor Doyle - department of Economics
• Freddy Adam - department of AFIS
• Colin Murphy - department of Electronic
Engineering
• Alan Collins - department of Food Economics
Analysing data from the field
• Rigour of data collection can help in this stage
• research instruments and how well you understand
them
• Have you thought about analysis before?
• Most personal stage of the the research
• supervisor may not want to help you too much
• no need to try to rush it (it does not work)
Research tools and what they look
like
•
•
•
•
•
Example of study of information flows
unit of analysis - manager
21 interviews carried out (5 discarded)
4 managers in 4 organisations - 16
3 tools:
– questionnaire
– map of flows
– framework of communication channels (daft / lengel)
A blank Map:
Horizontal communication
Vertical communication
Superiors
other departments
Superiors
same department
Executives
other departments
Executive
Outside
Executives / friends
Institutions
Corporations
Books / Journals
Other media
Existing Systems
Subordinates
other departments
Subordinates
same department
Computer-based
information systems
Support staff
Internal Newsletter
Other media
Board meetings are
info meetings for
owner
Horizontal communication
Chairman / Owner
Outside
Managing Director
Superiors
other departments
Superiors
same department
Vertical communication
Main tactical decision making
in informal meetings - daily
contacts
Guidelines VS economic reports (1)
Board meetings:
on-going decision making
e.g. what to do with cash
surplus (Irish operations,
export, other opportunities)
Executives / friends
Institutions
Irish Trade Board
Corporations
Books / Journals
Other media
Merchant bank - investment in government bonds
Monthly reports and weekly phone calls
Executives
other departments
Info about budgets + Budgets
(2)
Monitoring + questions
Executive
Ideas / recommendations VS
company philosophy + budget info
(2) budget prepared every year based on
13 4 week periods. P/L produced
monthly => variance calculation
Subordinates
other departments
Distributors in Northern Ireland
Advertising Agency
(1) Quarterly reports and telephone
conversations when specific events loom
large: e.g. 1987 daily calls
General info including newspaper articles
Existing Systems
Subordinates
same department
Minimal influence
`Computer department and Accounting function }
Office manager for debtor and creditor control
Computer-based
information systems
Support staff
Internal Newsletter
Other media
Smooth and worryless processes
The same after an interview
Blank Framework
Low
Written
unaddressed
High
Written
addressed
Periodicals
Computer reports
Regular reports
Telephone
Face-to-face Face-to-face
others
meeting
As a source
Memos
Letters
E-mail
Telephone calls
Social activities
business meals
observation tours
As a target
Unscheduled
and scheduled
meetings
Personal contacts = persuade people that they are doing what they think is right even though it is your own idea => ask people their opinion and
gain their commitment
Managing managers encourage and establish a dialogue + make sure they receive enough information.
Face to face are more successful for convincing people and asking them to do things.
Low
Written
unaddressed
Two way processes
Written
addressed
Periodicals
Computer reports
Regular reports
Telephone
Regular reports from various
internal sources / activities
=> storing info
=> building understanding of patterns
of activity
Managing is about pulling things
together. Past, present and future info
=> telephone is most suitable for that
but very short term
arrangement more than info - everything
oh high importance
Telephone calls
Same =
symmetrical
As a target
Face-to-face Face-to-face
others
meeting
Both lead to a modification of the
message / understanding based on incoming information
Regular reports about the functional area
Memos
Letters
E-mail
Low value of in-coming info
Good to see other people especially when
work involves other companies.
Not regular, but frequent especially to
base future reflection.
=> never go the same route twice
=> keep your eyes open for everything
not only for control, but to hear first
hand what is happening
High
Social activities
business meals
observation tours
Figure 4
As a source
To use as bargaining asset in
discussions with other managers
Preferably on the
basis of preliminary
documentation e.g.agenda or report
Unscheduled
and scheduled
meetings
Map number
and
description
Media
utilised for
transmission
Target of the
message
Board
Meeting
Formal
General
Hard and
soft
CEO
Informal
Other
directors +
owner
Managing
director
Strategic +
general
Hard and
soft
Monitoring of
budget
Telephone and
informal
contact
Telephone and
informal
contact
Telephone and
formal
meeting
Telephone and
meeting
Sales director
Budget
Soft
DP
department
Soft
Privileged
relationship
Banks
Sales,
accounts and
procedures
Goals pursued
Soft
Regular but
infrequent
Advertising
agency
Brand image
and budget
Hard and
soft
n/a
Request /
inquiries and
instructions
Guidelines for
investment
Company
philosophy
Intended
subject
Form of
signal
Evaluation /
judgement
Huge experience
with company –
very influential
Privileged link for
main corporate
decision making –
much value added
Negotiation
Figure 5: Framework for analysis of the information flows on the maps
Quantitative analysis
Job Title
Sales Manager
Buyer
Finance Controller
IT Director
Finance Director
Training Officer
Finance Director
HRM Director
Finance Director
Finance Controller
IT Director
Purchasing Director
Sales Director
Finance Director
Production Director
Sales Director
Total
Average per actor
Company
In-flows
Out-flows
Ratio
Category
D
A
A
B
B
D
A
C
D
B
D
B
A
C
C
C
----------10
7
7
7
8
9
8
9
5
6
7
7
6
4
6
----------4
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
4
5
6
7
6
5
8
------2.50
2.33
1.75
1.75
160
1.50
1.33
1.29
1.25
1.20
1.17
1.00
1.00
0.80
0.75
------------
106
7.07
80
5.33
Table 2: Analysis of IF /OF ratio per manager.
From 2.5 to
1.6 – more
In-flows
From 1.5 to
1.1 – more
In-flows
Symmetrical
Structure
Below 1 more Out-flows
Quantitative analysis
Job Title
Buyer
Finance Controller
Finance Director
Sales Director
IT Director
Finance Controller
Finance Director
Purchasing Director
Finance Director
Production Director
Sales Director
HRM Director
Finance Director
Training Officer
IT Director
Sales Manager
Total
Average per actor
Company
In-flows
Out-flows
Ratio
Company
Averages
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
D
D
D
D
10
7
9
7
7
5
7
7
6
4
6
8
9
8
6
-----------
4
3
6
7
4
4
4
6
6
5
8
6
7
5
5
-----------
2.50
2.33
1.50
1.00
1.75
1.25
1.75
1.17
1.00
0.80
0.75
1.33
1.29
160
1.20
-------
If = 8.25
Of = 5.00
Ratio = 1.83
106
7.07
80
5.33
Table 3: Analysis of IF /OF ratio per company
If = 6.5
Of = 4.5
Ratio = 1.48
If = 6.00
Of = 6.25
Ratio = 0.97
If = 7.67
Of = 5.67
Ratio = 1.39
Communication Channel -Overall Analysis
Name of Written
executive unaddressed
Intensive personal scanning
= curiosity
also in graphical form to
highlight variances
Pricing file is main
channel of communication
could be better if
information was better
prepared - irrelevant or
very important!
Too little time available!
Trying to organise paperclipping service +
dashboard for permanent
info
personal scanning for new
ideas
minor relevance (sees all
reports as addressed!)
minor relevance or crucial
as a tool to bargain
small or most important
source here!
For external info only
too much to cope with +
urgent to achieve
cooperation in storing data
general info
background only
useful or the bin!!
Important source for
personal development
(6 / 3 / 0) but 4 for
books and journals
Written
addressed
Biggest item, but too
much to manage properly
time waster - solution
needed
to verify that milestones
have been reached - ie
for specific queries only
quite a lot of info
exchanged internally
mostly internal mail
especially as a source internal mail to forward
documents and comments
high frequency and low
value
high volume
quite critical in
coordinating the action
of the sales force
small
very rare (too formal)
for the record only
small
small
very important to trigger
action
(5 / 1 / 6)
Telephone
Face-to-face
others
Small
Quite useful given the
geographical spread of the
company
to deal with exception or
prepare a remote visit
always followed by written
document
0% as a target (secretary)
50% as a source mostly
accidental
restricted except with the
sales reps - especially
phone conferences - ideal
to keep everyone abreast
small
too much time spent!
You have to live with it,
but it cannot be controlled
(culture)
quite important for
relations with outside
organisations
quite important and most
flexible to get things done
best for qualitative
impressions (especially
phone conferences)
Super for problem finding
and information gatherer
secretary screens everything
good for info not for action
small
vital source of contact with
remote sites - best way to show
support
important
tours are the best way to
communicate with wide labour
force - systematic use of lunch
and diners as well
small
crucial to obtain high value info
insignificant
small
small
small
visits in remote sites are vital
for efficient communication
infrequent
invaluable but cannot be used
all the time
to initiate contacts and be polite
small
(3 /3 / 3)
(5 / 0 / 6)
First figure: crucial
second figure: overload
third figure: little or no use
Face-to-face
meeting
Vital for strong linkage with
customers and suppliers
regular internal meetings
invaluable for cohesion
especially for specific topics
especially one-to-one: where
you make the real discoveries!!
30% of time: with customers
and also internally - better for
specific problem solving
primary communication channel
quite important
30% of time n meetings with
customers - also internal but
only in small groups
limited to major decision
making to avoid time wasting
informal meetings are everyday
tool
only task forces (specific
problems)
meetings should be used at a
later stage in problem solving
mostly one-to-one meetings
where the real work gets done
no way unless specific agenda!
Mots important channel!!
(9 / 2 / 1) and 5 for
specific problem solving