Transcript Research Paper Writing A

The Agenda
• Review structure of arguments
• Practice coming up with claims, reasons and
warrants
• Proposal Arguments
• Discuss the next writing assignment
Structure of an Argument
• Review: What are the five parts of an
argument?
Structure of an Argument
• Modern Structure
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Introduction (Classical: Exordium)
Background (Classical: Narratio)
Lines of Argument (Classical: Partitio, Confirmatio)
Alternative Arguments (Classical: Refutatio)
Conclusion (Classical: Peroratio)
Structure of an Argument
• Introduction
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Gets readers’ interest and willingness to listen
Establishes your qualifications to write about the topic
Establishes some common ground with your readers
Demonstrates that you’re fair and evenhanded
States your claim
Structure of an Argument
• Background
• Presents information, including personal narrative,
that’s important to your argument
• Lines of Argument
• Presents good reasons, including logical and emotional
appeals, in support of your claim
Structure of an Argument
• Alternative Arguments
• Examines alternative points of view and opposing
arguments
• Notes the advantages and disadvantages of these
views
• Explains why your view is better than others
Structure of an Argument
• Conclusion
• Summarizes the argument
• Elaborates on the implications of your claim
• Makes clear what you want the audience to think or
do
• Reinforces your credibility and perhaps offers an
emotional appeal
Structure of an Argument
• Look at the Declaration of Independence and
find the following elements …
• Introduction
• Background
• Lines of Argument
Toulmin Argument
• Named for British philosopher Stephen
Toulmin
• Five parts
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Claim – the argument you wish to prove
Qualifiers – any limits you place on your claim
Reasons/Evidence – support for your claim
Warrants – underlying assumptions that support your
claim
• Backing – evidence for warrant
Toulmin Argument
• Claims
• Debatable and controversial
• May start out as sweeping and overly simplistic
but will progress toward something more
reasonable and subtle
• Vegetarianism is the best choice of diet.
• NASA should launch a human expedition to Mars.
Toulmin Argument
• Claims
• Can begin to develop a claim by first coming
up with reasons to support it or finding
evidence that backs up the point …
Evidence and
Reason(s)
• Look at the example on p. 134
So Claim
Toulmin Argument
• Claims
• Once you make a claim, people will
automatically start questioning it
• How do you know your evidence is good?
• Do the reasons really support your claim?
• There must be a logical and persuasive
connection between a claim and the reasons
and data supporting it
• This connection is called the warrant
Toulmin Argument
• Warrants
• Answer the question: How do I get from the data
to the claim?
Evidence and
Reason(s)
So Claim
Because
Warrant
Toulmin Argument
• Warrants
• Look for the general principle that allows you to justify
the move from a reason to a specific to a specific claim
– the bridge connecting them
• Often a value or a principle that you share with your
readers
• Refresher: What’s an enthymeme?
• A statement that links a claim to a supporting reason
• Gas-fueled cars should be illegal because they pollute the
environment.
Toulmin Argument
• Warrants
• Enthymeme: Don’t eat that mushroom because
it’s poisonous!
• The warrant is that anything that’s poisonous shouldn’t
be eaten.
• Or … If something is poisonous, it’s dangerous to eat.
Reason: The
mushroom is
poisonous
Claim: So don’t
eat it!
Because: Eating
poisonous things is
dangerous
Toulmin Argument
• Practice
• Enthymeme: ______________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
Reason:
Claim:
Because:
Toulmin Argument
• Backing
• Support for warrants
• Enthymeme: NASA should launch a human
expedition to Mars because Americans need a
unifying national goal.
• What’s the claim?
• What’s the reason?
• Warrant: What unifies the nation ought to be a
national priority.
Toulmin Argument
• Backing
• Americans want to be part of something bigger than
themselves
• Emotional appeal as evidence
• In a country as diverse as the United States, common
purposes and values help make the nation stronger.
• Ethical appeal as evidence
• In the past, government investments such as the
Hoover Dam and the Apollo moon program enabled
many – though not all – Americans to work toward
common goals.
• Logical appeal as evidence
Toulmin Argument
• Qualifiers
• Make writing more precise and honest (believable) by
acknowledging limitations of your case …
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Few
It is possible
Rarely
Most
In general
Often
For the most part
Typically
Toulmin Argument
• Practice with Qualifiers
• Enthymeme: You will get into law school because
your LSAT scores are in the 98th percentile.
• How can this be qualified?
Reason: Your
LSAT scores are
in the 98th
percentile
Claim: So, you
will likely get
into law school
Because: High LSAT scores are
an important factor in law
school admission
Proposal Arguments
• Provide thoughtful reasons for supporting or
resisting change
• The simplest form … A should do B because of C
“The student government should endorse the
Academic Bill of Rights because students should
not be punished in their courses for their personal
political views.”
Proposal Arguments
• Three main characteristics:
• They call for change, often in response to a
problem
• They focus on the future
• They center on the audience
Proposal Arguments
• Consider the audience carefully
• General audience – avoid using technical language or
jargon; keep points simple and straightforward; charts
also work
• Specialized audience – tailor language to suit technical
or specialized knowledge; be ready to dig deeper into
the issue because this audience will have questions
Proposal Arguments
• Four Steps
• Define a problem that needs a solution or a need that
is not currently addressed
• Paint a vivid picture of the problem/need – give it a
“face” and show how it affects a broad audience
• Underscore why problem/need is important/urgent and
why previous “fixes” may have failed
• Make a strong claim that addresses the problem or
need. Your solution should be an action directed at the
future.
• A proposal of what X or Y should do followed by the
reason(s) that X or Y should act and the effects of
adopting the following proposal.
Proposal Arguments
• Four Steps
• Show why your proposal will fix the problem
or address the need.
• Relate the claim to the need or problem that it
addresses; use facts or other evidence; personal
experience works, too.
• Demonstrate the feasibility of your proposal.
• More evidence – from similar cases, experience,
observational or other data, etc. Mention $$ if your
proposal costs money.