Transcript Appendicular Skeleton
WHERE AM I?
Online Anatomy
Module 1
INTRO & TERMS CELL EPITHELIUM CONNECTIVE TISSUE MUSCLE NERVOUS SYSTEM AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON MUSCLES EMBRYOLOGY
SKULL VERTEBRAL COLUMN RIBS
SKELETON: Divisions
PECTORAL GIRDLE LIMB BONES PELVIC GIRDLE LIMB BONES Marieb Fig 5.6, p 121
2 SKELETONS
APPENDICULAR SKELETON PECTORAL GIRDLE CLAVICLE (Collar bone) omitted LIMB BONES
upper
PELVIC GIRDLE LIMB BONES
lower
appendicular skeleton hangs on the axial
PECTORAL GIRDLE
The pectoral girdle is not a 19th century corset for the upper chest On each side, it is a pair of bones that allows the arm to be fastened to the body, but to have an amazing range of movements & uses The arm is used for: swinging, crawling, reaching, pulling, throwing, twisting; & for positioning, orienting, stabilizing & controlling all that the hand does The bones of the pectoral girdle are the shoulder-blades & the collar-bones
PECTORAL GIRDLE
The bones of the pectoral girdle are the shoulder-blades & the collar bones SCAPULA or SHOULDER-BLADE CLAVICLE or COLLAR-BONE
SCAPULA
The SCAPULA is a peculiarly-shaped bone, with many surfaces, edges and protuberances for muscles (& ligaments) to attach. These are needed to control the arm directly, but also to position and stabilize the scapula for whatever the arm is doing The scapula is a highly mobile bone The arm is used for: swinging, crawling, reaching, pulling, throwing, twisting, etc; & for positioning, orienting, stabilizing & controlling all that the hand does
PECTORAL GIRDLE
SCAPULA Shoulder-blade
The scapula is the major part of the pectoral girdle & lies posteriorly The scapula is a shallow dish, with the concave side facing anteriorly, as it fits over the muscles & ribs of the back
SCAPULA: Terminology
Acromion process Coracoid process Spine Vertebral margin Glenoid fossa Inferior angle Needless to say, each side and angle has a name. Here are enough to be going on with.
SCAPULA: Parts I
The SPINE rises and thickens from the medial edge going laterally, forming a triangular ridge ending in a protuberance termed the ACROMION Spine The spine defines territories above & below it, into which muscles fit Acromion = Acromion process
SCAPULA: Parts II
ACROMION PROCESS improves the angle of action of the deltoid muscle pulling the arm away from the body, & anchors the lateral end of the clavicle Medial/Vertebral margin Spine Lies by the spines of vertebrae from which muscles attach to it
Coracoid process Glenoid fossa
SCAPULA: Parts III
Acromion process
CORACOID PROCESS Anterior beak to improve angle of biceps muscle Spine h u m e r u s GLENOID FOSSA Shallow socket for head of the humerus
Medial/Vertebral margin
SCAPULA: Parts IV
Viewed from side Acromion process Spine Coracoid process Anterior beak to improve Glenoid fossa u m e r u s
SCAPULA & CLAVICLE
The SCAPULA is a peculiarly-shaped bone, with many surfaces, edges and protuberances for muscles (& ligaments) to attach. These are need to control the arm, but also to position and stabilize the scapula for whatever the arm is doing The scapula is a highly mobile bone The arm is used for: swinging, reaching, pulling, throwing, twisting; & for positioning, orienting, stabilizing & controlling all that the hand does The CLAVICLE is the strut that: holds the shoulder out away from the trunk; absorbs shock; fastens appendicular to axial skeleton ; & anchors several muscles & ligaments
CLAVICLE
The arm is used for: swinging, crawling, reaching, pulling, throwing, twisting; & for positioning, orienting, stabilizing & controlling all that the hand does The CLAVICLE is the strut/brace that: holds the shoulder out, away from the trunk; absorbs shock; & fastens appendicular to axial skeleton
(at the sterno-clavicular joint)
& anchors several muscles & ligaments
Connections between axial & appendicular skeletons I Sterno-clavicular joint
Sterno-clavicular joint CLAVICLE Sternum S T E R N U M SCAPULA rotated unnaturally
Connections between axial & appendicular skeletons I Sterno-clavicular joint
Jugular notch Manubrium Sternum body CLAVICLE S T E R N U M Acromio-clavicular joint Scapula has no other joints, Hence NO joint with axial skeleton.
SCAPULA rotated unnaturally Sterno-clavicular joint Marieb Fig 5.20, p 133
CLAVICLE Left versus Right I
The clavicle has a lumpy sternal end & a blade-like acromial end The upper surface is smoother* than the inferior one, because ligaments etc come from below to attach to tuberosities The clavicle is a pulled-out S-shape Use these three features to ID left from right thus: “Smooth” - feel on yourself
CLAVICLE Left versus Right II
1 Place the clavicle on your chest with the lumpy end at your breast-bone 2 Try on right & left sides to make the first curvature going outward from the breast-bone face forward
Front Back
3 If the upper surface is not the smoother one, move the clavicle (keeping orientations 1 & 2) to the other side It should now be identifiable as Rt or Lft
Connections between axial & appendicular skeletons II Sacro-iliac joint
SACRUM of axial is wedged into the hip bones of the appendicular pelvic girdle For stability & the transmission of load via the hip bones to the legs
Sacro-iliac joint
Marieb Fig 5.18, p 132
Tuberosity
small bump
COMMON BONE TERMS
PROCESS
Protuberance
Spine Spine FOSSA
Shallow depression
Angle Margin Border Edge Head
COMMON BONE TERMS
PROCESS has become an overused word In anatomy, as noun, it means something that sticks out or protrudes from a cell, from a bone, or from a soft organ In anatomy, as noun, process still also means the way in which something occurs - the process of cell division, the process of shrinking, of winking To give slow-witted politicians more time to think, the last example has been horribly extended by their speech-writers for example, ‘deciding’ is a noun and does not need to be the ‘decision-making process’. Thus, “deciding that won’t be easy” , “wine-making is fun” are natural & correct English
HUMERUS
Viewed from behind Is the single bone of the ARM Proximally, it articulates with the scapula at the shoulder Distally, it articulates with two bones of the forearm at elbow joint It has specially shaped surfaces at the elbow to allow the ulna & radius their movements At the elbow, it has depressions engaging processes of the ulna to limit its movement It has several tuberosities and much surface , including epicondyles, for the attachment of muscles
HUMERUS I
Viewed from front Deltoid tuberosity Lateral Epicondyle Capitulum HEAD Coronoid Fossa Medial Epicondyle Trochlea
HUMERUS II
Viewed from behind HEAD Deltoid tuberosity Olecranon Fossa Medial Epicondyle Trochlea Lateral Epicondyle
HUMERUS Right versus Left
1 On yourself, place the rounded head of the humerus at either shoulder 2 Turn the head so that it faces medially (inward) at that shoulder At the elbow end, look for the shallow coronoid fossa on one side & the deeper olecranon fossa on the other 3 Keeping orientations 1 & 2, move the humerus to the side that has the deep olecranon fossa facing posteriorly As one extends the elbow, the olecranon process of the ulna locks into the fossa on the humerus, preventing hyperextension
DISTAL HUMERUS
Viewed from front The Capitulum is a little sphere-like structure: a surface for rotation The Capitulum matches a dimple in the symmetrical head of the radius bone Trochlear is a noun, not an adjective The Trochlear is a spool-like rolling surface for the ulna For the name, remember that capital punishment used often to include beheading
Head Neck
RADIUS I
Viewed from in front Radial tuberosity Styloid process Articular surface for wrist/carpal bones
Head Neck Styloid process
RADIUS II
Viewed from in front
Radial tuberosity
Sharp edge - Interosseous border/margin Concave surface -
space for muscles
Feel for yourself: the back of the forearm is bony, the front, squishy
Articular surface for wrist/carpal bones
RADIUS: Right versus Left
Head lies at elbow end
Radius lies laterally to ulna
Sharp edge faces medially towards ulna Concave surface space for muscles faces forward Styloid process sort-of points laterally
Head
RADIUS & ULNA: Cautions
The head of the ulna is at the wrist end Styloid process The ulna also has a styloid process. The two help hold the carpal bones in place.
ULNA I
Viewed from in front Radial notch Caution - on the ulna !
Olecranon Palpable at the back of the elbow, when you flex & extend it Coronoid process Ulnar head Styloid process
ULNA II
Viewed from in front Radial notch Caution - on the ulna !
Olecranon Palpable at the back of the elbow, when you flex & extend it Coronoid process Head of ulna Ulnar head The bump lying laterally on the back of your wrist, when it is pronated (palm down) Styloid process
ULNA III
Olecranon Coronoid process Radial notch allows the radius to rotate against the ulna for supination-pronation movements Interosseous margin for strong fibrous attachment to the radius Head Concave surface -
space for muscles
Styloid process
ULNA IV
Viewed from lateral side Radial notch allows the radius to rotate against the ulna for supination pronation movements a ligament holds the radius in place Olecranon Coronoid process The elbow end of the ulna is distinctive, with its hook-like olecranon process for raking in the chips at the neolithic gaming table
HUMERUS
Viewed from behind It has specially shaped surfaces at the elbow to allow the ulna & radius their movements At the elbow, it has depressions engaging processes of the ulna to limit its movement - behind, the Olecranon fossa takes olecranon of ulna to limit extension of the elbow
Back to the forearm Right FOREARM BONES RADIUS on thumb side RADIUS ULNA on little- finger side A relation kept during pronation ULNA
ANTERIOR Right FOREARM: Radius & Ulna SUPINATED Thumb lateral Radius rotates on two radio ulnar joints PRONATED Two bones are held together by ligaments & the interosseous membrane Thumb medial
ULNA: Right versus Left
Olecranon is at elbow end
Ulna lies medially to radius
Radial notch faces laterally toward radius Sharp edge faces laterally towards radius Concave surface - space for muscles - faces forward Styloid process sort-of points medially
Anterior surfaces
Rt U LIMB
Head
RE-ASSEMBLY
HUMERUS Capitulum RADIUS ULNA Thumb
WRIST & HAND III This is a view of the DORSUM (back) of the hand. The other is the PALMAR (palm) side
Little finger/
Pinky
Head of ulna Ring finger Thumb Index finger/
Forefinger
Middle finger
WRIST & HAND I
Digits
CAUTION One thinks of the wrist as what one grips on someone, using one’s whole hand
Knuckles
However, the wrist bones carpals - are only those that lie under two fingers’ width just distal to the end of the ulna Head of ulna
HAND II: BONES
Phalangeal bones
Metacarpal bones 8 Carpal (wrist) bones
HAND II: BONES
Terminal Distal Middle Proximal
Phalanges (Phalangeal bones) 3 per finger 2 for the thumb
Proximal Terminal V IV III II I Metacarpal bones 8 Carpal (wrist) bones
WRIST & HAND II
Knuckles of the fist are the heads of the metacarpals However, the wrist bones - carpals - are only those that lie under two fingers’ width just distal to the end of the ulna Carpal bones Head of ulna But the carpal bones articulate with the radius: wrist is the radio-carpal joint
BROKEN ‘WRIST’
is a term to arouse caution The carpal bones articulate with the radius: wrist is the radio-carpal joint, so falling on the hand may break the distal radius However, the wrist bones - carpals - are only those that lie under two fingers’ width just distal to the end of the ulna Carpal bones And one bone in particular of these true wrist ones is sometimes fractured
MAINLY SPONGY BONE LOSS causes fractures in 1 Bones that are mostly spongy, e.g. vertebra
compression fracture
2 Spongy part of long bones where leverage concentrates loading “Wrist” end of radius “Hip” fracture at neck of femur
from falling on the hand
WRIST FOR COMMUNICATION Passing through the wrist are:
Arteries Veins Nerves Tendons to flex Tendons to extend All critical & vunerable, & with little muscle or fat to protect them Some protection comes from running many structures on the palmar side Some of the carpal bones create a tunnel for more protection
LEFT CARPAL TUNNEL
Schematic cross-section Ulnar artery Flexor retinaculum - sheet of fibrous tissue roofing in the tunnel Median nerve Ulnar nerve Tendons to flex CARPAL BONES Tendons to extend outside tunnel, on dorsal side of wrist lubricated spaces/compartments for structures to glide in Discomfort of C-T syndrome from compromised median nerve
RADIAL ARTERY: Pulse
Concave surface - space for muscles - faces forward & Radius lies laterally to ulna also protects vessels, e.g., radial artery Close to the wrist, where the muscles thin & give way to tendons, the pulse can be felt by pressing the artery against the bone with the finger tips
BRACHIAL ARTERY: Pulse
Brachial refers to the arm The brachial artery lies protected on the medial side of the humerus Humerus Close to the elbow, where the muscles thin, the pulse can be felt by pressing the brachial artery against the humerus, or listened for with a stethoscope
LOWER APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Lower appendicular skeleton supports the axial skeleton and upper body & provides locomotion & other activities It comprises the lower LIMB BONES & the PELVIC GIRDLE stabilizing them & connecting with the axial skeleton The connection is secured by wedging the axial sacrum between the hip bones to create the bony pelvis SACRUM ILIUM
LOWER APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Lower appendicular skeleton supports the axial skeleton upper body & provides locomotion & other activities It comprises the lower LIMB BONES & the PELVIC GIRDLE stabilizing them & connecting with the axial skeleton The connection is secured by wedging the axial sacrum between the hip bones to create the bony pelvis PELVIC GIRDLE HIP BONES Ilium Ischium Pubic bone
Connections between axial & appendicular skeletons II Sacro-iliac joint
SACRUM of axial is wedged into the hip bones of the appendicular pelvic girdle For stability & the transmission of load via the hip bones to the legs Marieb Fig 5.18, p 132
PELVIS
Viewed from in front Is an assembly of the axial sacrum & two threesomes - hip bones SACRUM ILIUM The three bones are fused together, but there are three pelvic joints: two sacro-iliac & one pubic symphysis The pelvis protects the pelvic organs, but has four openings, two large The pelvis is a stable device for transferring axial load to the legs at the hip joints The hip joints allow the legs freedom of movement
think gymnasts & ballet
Hip has much surface , including crests, for the attachment of muscles
Anterior view
HIP JOINT
SACRUM
ILIUM
Acetabulum - socket for ball like head of femur/ thigh bone This is a deep dislocation resistant ball-&-socket joint, unlike the shoulder joint
ILIUM
PELVIS: Lines of sight
In general, some of the views of bones used here are a little different from those in the textbook in order to add to your ideas on the pieces of the skeleton View from above - Superior View from in front & above Most of Marieb’s Figs View from in front - Anterior
PELVIC GIRDLE + SACRUM
Anterior view Two hip bones are fused assemblages of three bones each.
They have the sacrum wedged between them behind & fasten at the front by a fibrocartilaginous joint - symphysis Sacroiliac joint SACRUM
ILIUM
Pubic symphysis Pubic bone Ischium
ILIUM is the major bone
PELVIC GIRDLE + SACRUM II
Anterior view SACRUM
ILIUM
Obturator foramen - hole defined by Ischium below Pubic bone above Acetabulum
Anterior view
OBTURATOR FORAMEN
SACRUM ILIUM Acetabulum Inferior pubic ramus Superior pubic ramus Obturator foramen Ischial tuberosity Ischial ramus
Ramus
(L)
-
a branch, bough
Anterior view
OBTURATOR FORAMEN II
SACRUM Inferior pubic ramus
NOTE on 1 SIDE Two pubic rami, one ischial ramus Lower ramus has a join halfway along Unseen that the ischium is larger than the pubic bone
Superior pubic ramus Obturator foramen Ischial tuberosity Ischial ramus
Lateral view
HIP/COXAL BONES = ONE OS COXA
HIP BONES Ilium Ischium Pubic bone
ILIUM
Ilium Ischium Acetabulum Lines of fusion of 3 bones during childhood Pubic bone Obturator foramen
Ilium Ischium
HIP/COXAL BONES = ONE OS COXA
ILIUM
CAUTION - Ask When the term ‘hip bones’ is used, is the reference to: the two composite hip bones of each side?
the three bones making up one hip bone?
the six bones making up both hip bones?
Ask Pubic bone
SUB-PUBIC ANGLE
SACRUM
ILIUM
Obturator-foramen shape Sub-pubic angle
(Pubic arch)
is one of many variables between female & male pelves, aimed at having the female pelvis suited for childbirth, as well as the other pelvic functions
Lateral view
ISCHIUM I
Anterior view
ILIUM
SACRUM
ILIUM
Sciatic notch Ischial ramus Ischial tuberosity
what one sits on
Ischial tuberosity
PELVIS & ISCHIUM II
Superior view SACRUM Mid-pelvic diameter Ischial spines create a hazardous constriction in the pelvic (birth) canal
Please don’t squeeze my head
Superior view Before reaching the ischial tuberosities, etc, of the pelvic outlet , the baby’s head has to enter the pelvic inlet Sacral promontory One of its critical dimensions is the INLET between the sacral promontory & the upper margin of the pubis SACRUM The sacral promontory & the lower edge of the pubis can be felt via the vagina for prior warning of trouble
WORKING PELVIS
Despite the number of views of the pelvis that we have seen already, one more - the medial is needed to understand a working pelvis SACRUM ILIUM ILIUM from the midline looking laterally The empty-appearing black spaces shown within the contours of the pelvis are occupied by many muscles & ligaments Sciatic notch Ischial spine Some holes also let nerves & vessels pass out Although, for diagrams, the pelvis is presented aligned with the screen or page margins, in life it is tilted in the body in the sagittal plane
SACRUM
HIP/COXAL BONE
Medial view from the midline looking laterally Iliac crest
(felt at the ‘hip’)
Sciatic notch Ischial spine Ischial tuberosity Pubic symphisis Obturator foramen
PELVIS IN POSITION
The pelvis protects the pelvic organs, but has four openings, two large Pelvic inlet
boundary between cavities
Pelvic cavity ILIUM Abdominal cavity At the top, it is freely open to the abdominal cavity Pubic symphysis Underneath, the narrower opening is covered in by the muscles of the pelvic floor
Pelvic inlet Pelvic cavity
ILIUM
PELVIS IN POSITION
Note the axis curves going through the pelvis The upper direction is taken as the fetus grows into abdominal territory At birth, the head must make several turns & twists to follow the axis down
Abdominal cavity Pubic symphysis
Pelvic axis
PELVIS: Female versus Male
We have seen just about enough views to list some of the differences. So far, the pelvis shown has not SACRU M really been sexually differentiated.
FEMALE
More lightly built Pelvis wider & more shallow Obturator foramen oval Unseen here: pelvic inlet, oval; Sub-pubic angle wide
(greater than 80 0 )
Shorter, more curved sacrum outlet, relatively large
PELVIS: Female versus Male
FEMALE
Anterior view More lightly built Pelvis wider & more shallow Obturator foramen oval Unseen here: pelvic inlet, oval; Sub-pubic angle wide
(greater than 80 0 )
Shorter, more curved sacrum outlet, relatively large Marieb Fig 5.23, p.137
PELVIS: Male versus Female
MALE Anterior view More heavily built Pelvis deep Obturator foramen round Sub-pubic angle narrow
(less than 80 0 )
Longer, straighter sacrum Unseen: pelvic inlet, heart-shaped; outlet, relatively small
PELVIS: Female versus Male
FEMALE
More lightly built Pelvis wider & more shallow MALE Obturator foramen round Sub-pubic angle wide
(greater than 80 0 )
Longer, straighter sacrum
COXAL BONE: Right versus Left I
Iliac crest
(felt at the ‘hip’)
Acetabulum (on lateral side) SACRUM will be absent Pubic symphisis
For lab ID of one hip bone
Place the bone on yourself with: the iliac crest superior , the acetabulum facing outward , and bone tilted so that the rough pubic symphysis faces a little down, and is right at the midline to meet its fellow of the other side
COXAL BONE: Right versus Left II
ILIUM Place the bone on yourself with: the iliac crest superior, the acetabulum facing outward, and bone tilted so that the rough pubic symphysis faces a little down, and is right at the midline to meet its fellow of the other side
The pelvis protects the pelvic organs, but has four openings, two large Pelvic inlet
boundary between cavities
Pelvic cavity ILIUM
PELVIC ORGANS
Pelvic cavity: contents Genital/ reproductive Urinary bladder Ends of ureters Rectum Vessels & nerves
Abdominal cavity Pubic symphysis
Muscular pelvic floor holds contents up.
Pelvic cavity ILIUM
PELVIC ORGANS: Prolapse
Pelvic cavity: contents Genital/ reproductive Urinary bladder Ends of ureters Rectum Vessels & nerves Muscular pelvic floor holds contents up. If the floor is weakened by trauma, giving birth, nerve damage, organs can drop - prolapse; sometimes to the point of hanging out of orifices
FEMUR I
Viewed from behind Is the single bone of the thigh Proximally, it articulates with the pelvic girdle at the hip At the hip , it has a prominent head Distally, it articulates at the knee with one of the two leg bones It has specially shaped surfaces - condyles - at the knee to roll on the plateau of the tibia It has several tuberosities and much surface , including epicondyles, for the attachment of muscles
Greater trochanter
FEMUR II
Viewed from front Femoral head Femoral neck Minor trochanter Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle
Femoral head
FEMUR III
Viewed from behind Greater trochanter Femoral neck Minor trochanter Linea aspera Lateral epicondyle Medial condyle Intercondylar fossa Medial epicondyle Lateral condyle
FEMUR IV: ID left from right
Viewed from behind Femoral head facing in to the hip Gluteal tuberosity Linea aspera facing posteriorly Concavity for hamstring muscles & popliteal region to the back
TIBIA & FIBULA I
Lateral condyle Fibular HEAD TIBIA Rt viewed from front Medial condyle Tibial tuberosity Anterior crest
Sharp edge to be felt down the front of the shin bone
Lateral Malleolus Medial Malleolus
Patella
FEMUR IV Patella
Viewed from front The quadriceps muscles in the front of the thigh send their tendon across the knee joint to insert into the front of the tibia. As the tendon passes the knee, it includes a bone - the patella or knee-cap.
The patella, on its posterior side, has cartilage-covered surfaces to articulate with the anterior femur
(they feel smooth)
Patella does not articulate with the tibia The tendon continues on to anchor in the tibial tuberosity
Posterior
KNEE I
FEMUR Lateral view Anterior Quadriceps muscle Quadriceps tendon Patella Popliteal space for nerves vessels, muscles, etc TIBIA Cruciate Ligament One of many robust ones stabilizing the knee The fibula does not participate
Patella F E M U R TIBIA
KNEE II
Anterior view The femoral condyles roll on the flatter condyles of the tibial plateau The motion is mostly in one plane for flexion & extension of the knee because of the many ligaments restraining motion However, some rotation is necessary Wedge-shaped semicircular pieces of fibrocartilage lie medially & laterally, partially to cushion the opposing condyles. Each is a meniscus. The medial meniscus is held in place and often gets torn a “torn knee cartilage”, with the piece(s) causing inflammation & interfering with motion
Fibular HEAD
FIBULA
In the lab, the fibula is a slender bone distinguished by its lack of distinction at either end Lateral Malleolus
TIBIA
TIBIA & FIBULA II
Rt. viewed from front Lateral Malleolus TALUS Interosseous membrane
fastening fibula to tibia , along with ligaments, e.g.,
Anterior tibiofibular ligament Medial Malleolus
TIBIA Right versus Left
TIBIA Rt viewed from front Tibial tuberosity Anterior crest
Sharp edge to be felt down the front of the shin bone
Like the femur, more muscle is at the back, so the concavity should face rearwards Medial Malleolus
other Malleolus is on the fibula
Big toe
FOOT I: BONES
Rt foot from above
Phalangeal bones
Metatarsal bones Tarsal / ankle bones TALUS CALCANEUS heel-bone
Big toe
FOOT II: TARSAL BONES
Phalangeal bones
Metatarsal bones from above
Note contrasts with the wrist bones
Two much larger bones Only one bone - talus articulates with the tibia & fibula Tarsal/ankle bones TALUS CALCANEUS heel-bone Bones held together with strong ligaments Bones participate in constructing flexible arches for walking Marieb Fig 5.26, p. 139 7 bones instead of 8
TIBIA
FOOT III: ANKLE JOINT
Rt. viewed from front Lateral Malleolus TALUS Interosseous membrane
fastening fibula to tibia , along with ligaments, e.g.,
Anterior tibiofibular ligament Medial Malleolus
FOOT IV: Loading
Rt. viewed from medial side The Talus spreads the load to the heel-bone and the heads of the metatarsals to transfer to the ground, tree, floor, mud, or wherever you live TALUS CALCANEUS Medial longitudinal arch of the foot.
There are also lateral longitudinal, and transverse arches
WHERE AM I?
Online Anatomy
Module 1
INTRO & TERMS CELL EPITHELIUM
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CONNECTIVE TISSUE MUSCLE NERVOUS SYSTEM AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON MUSCLES EMBRYOLOGY Caution how you exit.
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