Transcript No Slide Title

Chapter 2
Minerals and Rocks
Earth Materials – Minerals
• Some minerals,
– such as gold,
– have fascinated people for
thousands of years
– and have been supposed
– to have mystical or curative
powers
• Minerals have many essential
uses
– in industrial societies
• Minerals are the basic units
– that make up most of Earth’s
materials
Earth Materials – Rocks
• Rocks also have many uses:
– rocks crushed for aggregate in cement and for
roadbeds
– sawed and polished rocks for tombstones,
monuments, mantle pieces and countertops
– Even the soils we depend on
• for most of our food
• are formed by alteration of rocks
Rocks
• Mountains
around Tenaya
Lake in
Yosemite
National Park
– Made of granite
– Granite is
composed of
quartz and
feldspar
minerals
Minerals
Minerals on
display
– at the
California
Academy of
Sciences in
San Francisco
Earth Materials
• Some materials
formed by the Earth
– are interesting and
attractive
– such as this
metamorphic rock
• from the shoreline of
Lake Superior at
Marquette, Michigan
Matter and Its Composition
• Matter
– anything that has mass and occupies space
– exists as solids, liquids, gases, and plasma
– consists of elements and atoms
• Element
– a chemical substance
– composed of tiny particles called atoms
Atoms
• Atoms are the smallest units of matter
– that retain the characteristics of the element
• Atoms have
– a compact nucleus containing
• protons – particles with a positive electrical charge
• neutrons – electrically neutral particles
– particles outside the nucleus
• electrons – negatively charged particles
Atoms
• Atomic number
= the number of protons
• Atomic mass number
= number of protons + number of neutrons
• The number of neutrons in nucleus of an
element may vary
Isotopes
• Isotopes
– the different forms of an element’s atoms
– with varying numbers of neutrons
• Different isotopes of the same element
– have different atomic mass numbers
• Isotopes are important in radiometric dating
Carbon Isotopes
• Three isotopes of carbon (all with 6
protons)
– 6 neutrons = Carbon 12 (12C)
– 7 neutrons = Carbon 13 (13C)
– 8 neutrons = Carbon 14 (14C)
Electrons and Shells
• Electrons lie outside the nucleus in one or more shells
• The outermost shells are involved
– in chemical bonding
– and contain up to 8 electrons
• Noble gas configuration of 8 electrons
• or 2 for helium
– have complete outer shells
– and are stable
• Other atoms attain
– a noble gas configuration
– through the process of bonding
Bonding and Compounds
• Bonding
– the process whereby atoms join to other atoms
• Compound
– a substance resulting from the bonding
– of two or more elements
• Oxygen gas (O2) is an element
• Ice (H2O) is a compound
– made up of hydrogen and oxygen atoms
• Most minerals are compounds
Ionic Bonding
• One way for atoms to attain the noble gas
configuration
– is by transferring electrons, producing ions
• Ion
– an atom that has gained or lost one or more
electrons
– and thus has a negative or positive charge
• Ionic bonding
– attraction between two ions of opposite charge
Covalent Bonding
• Another way for atoms
– to attain the noble gas configuration
– is by sharing electrons
• Covalent bonding
– results from
sharing electrons
shared electrons
Minerals
• Geological definition of a mineral:
– naturally occurring
– crystalline solid
• crystalline means that minerals
• have atoms arranged in specific 3-dimensional
frameworks
– inorganic
– minerals have a narrowly
defined chemical composition
– and characteristic physical
properties such as
• density
• hardness
Minerals—The Building
Blocks of Rocks
• A mineral’s composition is shown by a
chemical formula
– a shorthand way of indicating how many atoms
of different kinds it contains
– Quartz molecules consist
Quartz: SiO2
of 1 silicon atom and 2
Ratio: 1: 2
oxygen atoms
– Orthoclase molecules
KAlSi3O8
consists of 1 potassium, 1
aluminum, 3 silicon, and 8
1: 1: 3: 8
oxygen atoms
Native Elements
• A few minerals
consist of only one
element.
• They are not
compounds.
• They are known as
native elements.
• Examples:
– Gold: Au
– Diamond: C
Crystalline Solids
• By definition, minerals are crystalline solids
– with atoms arranged in a specific 3D framework
• If given enough room to grow freely,
–
–
–
–
minerals form perfect crystals with
planar surfaces, called crystal faces
sharp corners
straight edges
Narrowly Defined
Chemical Composition
• Some minerals have very specific
compositions
– Examples: halite (NaCl), quartz (SiO2)
• Other minerals have a range of compositions
– because one element can substitute for another
– if the atoms of the two elements have
• the same electrical charge
• and are about the same size
– Example: olivine
• (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
• iron and magnesium substitution in any proportion
Mineral Properties
• Mineral properties are controlled by
– Chemical composition
– Crystalline structure
• Mineral properties are particularly useful
– for mineral identification and include:
•
•
•
•
color
streak
luster
crystal form
•
•
•
•
cleavage
fracture
hardness
specific gravity
How Many Minerals
Are There?
•
•
•
•
More than 3500 minerals are known
Only about 2 dozen are particularly common
Many others are important resources
Mineral groups:
– minerals with the same negatively charged ion
or ion group
– belong to the same mineral group
• Most minerals in the crust
– belong to the group called silicates
Silicates
• Silicates are minerals containing silica
– Si and O
• These minerals make up almost 95% of
Earth’s crust
– and account for about 1/3 of all known minerals
• The basic building block of silicates
– is the silica tetrahedron
• which consists of one silicon atom
• surrounded by four oxygen atoms
Types of Silicates
• Silica tetrahedra can be
– isolated units bonded to
other elements
– arranged in chains (single or
double)
– arranged in sheets
– arranged in complex
3D networks
Types of Silicates
• Ferromagnesian silicates
– contain iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), or both
• Nonferromagnesian silicates
– do not contain iron or magnesium
Ferromagnesian Silicates
• Common ferromagnesian silicates include
Nonferromagnesian Silicates
Other Mineral Groups
• Carbonates
– minerals with carbonate ion (CO3)-2
• calcite (CaCO3),
– constituent of limestone
• dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2],
– constituent of dolostone
• Other mineral groups are important,
– but more as resources
– than as constituents of rocks
Rock-Forming Minerals
• Most rocks are solid aggregates
– of one or more minerals
• Hundreds of minerals occur in rocks,
– but only a few are common
– and called rock-forming minerals
• Most rock-forming minerals are silicates,
– but carbonates are also important
• Accessory minerals are present in small amounts
– and are ignored in classifying rocks
Rock Cycle
• The rock cycle is a pictorial representation
– of events leading to
– the origin, destruction, change
– and reformation of rocks
• Rocks belong to 3 major families
– igneous
– sedimentary
– metamorphic
• The rock cycle shows
– how these rock families are interrelated
– and can be derived from one another
Rock
Cycle
Igneous Rocks
• All igneous rocks
– cool and crystallize from magma,
– solidify from lava,
– or consolidate from pyroclastic materials
• Magma is molten material
– below the surface
• Lava is molten material on the surface
• Pyroclastic materials
– are particles such as volcanic ash
Igneous Part of the Rock Cycle
Pyroclastic
material
Lava
Categories of Igneous Rocks
• Extrusive or volcanic rocks
– formed at the surface
– from lava or pyroclastic materials
• Intrusive or plutonic rocks
– formed from magma injected into the crust
– or formed in place in the crust
– Plutons are intrusive bodies
Plutons
Igneous Rock Textures
• Texture
– is the size, shape, and arrangement
– of crystals, grains, and other constituents of a
rock
• Igneous rocks have several textures
– that relate to cooling rate of magma or lava
Igneous Rock Textures
Cooling-Rate Textures
• phaneritic,
– with visible grains
• cooled slowly
• aphanitic,
– with grains too small to see without magnification
• cooled quickly
• porphyritic,
– with larger grains (phenocrysts) surrounded by a
finer-grained groundmass
• cooled slowly intrusively, then expelled onto the surface
• glassy,
– with no grains
• cooled too quickly for minerals to grow
Igneous Rock Textures
• Other textures reveal further details
– of the formation of the rock
• Vesicular texture, with holes (vesicles),
– indicates the rock formed
– as water vapor and other gases
– became trapped during cooling of lava
• Pyroclastic or fragmental texture,
– containing fragments,
– formed by consolidation of volcanic ash
– or other pyroclastic material
Igneous Rock Textures
Classifying Igneous Rocks
• Texture and composition are the criteria
– used to classify most igneous rocks
• Composition categories are based on mineral
composition
–
–
–
–
FELSIC, light colored, >65% silica
INTERMEDIATE, 53-65% silica
MAFIC, dark colored, 45-52% silica
ULTRAMAFIC, <45% silica
Classifying Igneous Rocks
Common Igneous Rocks
Basalt
Gabbro
Andesite
Diorite
Common Igneous Rocks
Rhyolite
Granite
Classifying Igneous Rocks with
Special Textures
Igneous Rocks with
Special Textures
Outcrop with basalt
underlain by tuff
Pumice is glassy and
extremely vesicular.
Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary rocks form
– by the lithification of sediment
• In the rock cycle, sediment originates when
– mechanical and chemical weathering
• disintegrate and decompose rocks at the surface
– Transport removes sediment
• from its source area and carries it elsewhere
– Sediments accumulate in deposits,
• or as minerals that precipitate from solution
• or that organisms extract from solution.
Sedimentary Part of the
Rock Cycle
Lithification
• Lithification means
– converting sediment into sedimentary rock
• Lithification occurs by
– compaction
• Pressure exerted by overlying sediments
• reduction of the amount of pore space between particles
– cementation
• precipitation of minerals within pores
• effectively binds sediment together
– calcium carbonate (CaCO3) cement is common
– silica (SiO2) cement is common
– iron oxide or iron hydroxide (Ex: Fe2O3) cement is less common
Categories of Sedimentary Rocks
• Detrital sedimentary rocks
– consist of solid particles
– derived from preexisting rocks (detritus)
• Chemical sedimentary rocks
– consist of minerals derived from materials in
solution and
– extracted by either
• inorganic chemical processes
• or by the activities of organisms
– subcategory biochemical sedimentary rocks, in
which
• the activities of organisms are important
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
• are composed of fragments or particles
– known as clasts = Clastic texture
• These rocks are defined primarily by size of
clasts
• conglomerate
– composed of gravel (>2mm)
– with rounded clasts
• sedimentary breccia
– also composed of gravel (>2mm)
– but clasts are angular
• sandstone
– composed of sand
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
• Mudrocks consist of particles < 1/16 mm
– mudstone
• composed of particles less than 1/16 mm particles
• consists of both silt- and clay-size particles
– siltstone
• composed of silt-sized particles 1/16-1/256 mm
– claystone
• composed of clay-sized particles <1/256 mm
– shale
• mudstone or claystone that
• breaks along closely spaced parallel planes (fissile)
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
• Recall that these rocks result
– when inorganic chemical processes
– or organisms extract minerals from solution
• This can result in different textures
– Crystalline texture
• has an interlocking mosaic of mineral crystals
– Clastic texture
• has an accumulation of broken pieces of shells
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
• Limestone – carbonate rock made of calcite
precipitated chemically or (most commonly) by
organisms
• Dolostone – carbonate rock made of dolomite usually
altered from limestone
• Evaporites formed by
– inorganic chemical precipitation during evaporation
– Rock salt and rock gypsum – evaporites made of
sodium chloride and gypsum
– Chert – compact, hard, fine grained silica, formed by
chemical or biological precipitation
– Coal – made of partially altered, compressed remains of land
plants accumulated in swamps
Common Sedimentary Rocks
Conglomerate
Quartz sandstone
Sedimentary breccia
Shale
Common Sedimentary Rocks
Rock gypsum
Fossiliferous limestone
Rock salt
Chert
Coal
Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic rocks
– result from transformation of other rocks
– in the solid state, without melting
• Changes from metamorphism include
– compositional
• new minerals form
– textural
• minerals become aligned
– or both
Metamorphic Part of the
Rock Cycle
Agents of Metamorphism
• Heat
– Increases the rate of chemical reactions
– Yields different minerals from parent rock
• Pressure
– Lithostatic pressure
• Weight of overlying rocks
• Forms smaller, denser minerals
– Differential pressure
• exerts force more intensely from one direction
• Fluid activity is an important metamorphic agent
as well
Types of Metamorphism
• Contact metamorphism
– heat and chemical fluids
– from an igneous body
– alter adjacent rocks
• Regional metamorphism
– most common
– large, elongated areas
– tremendous pressure, elevated temperatures, and fluid
activity
– occurs at convergent and divergent plate boundaries
• Dynamic metamorphism
– Confined to zones adjacent to faults
– Differential pressure
Metamorphic Textures
• Foliated texture
– platy and elongate minerals aligned parallel to
one another
– caused by differential pressure
• Nonfoliated texture
– mosaic of roughly equidimensional minerals
Formation of Foliation
• When rocks are subjected to differential
pressure the minerals typically rearrange in a
parallel fashion
Formation of Foliation
• Microscopic
view of a
metamorphic
rock with
foliation
showing the
parallel
arrangement of
minerals
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
• Slate
– very fine-grained, low-grade metamorphism
• Phyllite
– fine-grained (coarser than slate but grains are
still too small to see without magnification)
• Schist
– clearly visible platy and/or elongate minerals
• Gneiss
– alternating dark and light bands of minerals
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
• Marble
– Composed of calcite or dolomite metamorphosed from
limestone or dolostone
• Quartzite
– Composed of quartz metamorphosed from quartz
sandstone
• Greenstone
– Green, altered mafic igneous rock
• Hornfels
– Clay-rich, results from contact metamorphism
• Anthracite
– Black, lustrous, hard coal
Common Metamorphic Rocks
Slate
Gneiss
Schist
Marble
Quartzite
Plate Tectonics
and the Rock Cycle
• The atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere
– act on earth materials
– and cause weathering, erosion, and deposition
• Earth’s internal heat
– aids melting and metamorphism
• Plate tectonics recycles Earth materials
– heat and pressure at convergent plate boundaries
• lead to metamorphism and igneous activity
– Some rocks in subducted plate are deformed and incorporated
into an evolving mountain system
• that in turn weather and erode to form sediment
Summary
• Elements consist of atoms,
– which have a nucleus
• of protons and neutrons
– surrounded by electrons in shells
• The number of protons = the atomic number
• and the number of protons + neutrons = the
atomic mass number
• Bonding of atoms occurs
– by transfer of electrons that form ions
• ionic bonding
– by sharing of electrons
• covalent bonding
Summary
• Most minerals are compounds
– of two or more elements bonded together
• The most common minerals are silicates,
• which contain silicon and oxygen,
– but carbonate minerals,
• with carbon and oxygen
– are abundant in some rocks
• Two broad groups of igneous rocks
– are intrusive (plutonic)
– and extrusive (volcanic)
• Igneous rocks are classified primarily
– by composition and texture
Summary
• Sedimentary rocks also have two broad
groups
– detrital,
• which consist of solid particles of preexisting rocks,
– and chemical/biochemical,
• which consist of minerals derived
• by inorganic chemical activities or the activities of
organisms
• Compaction and cementation
– transform sediment into sedimentary rock,
– in a process called lithification
Summary
• Metamorphic rocks form
– when composition and/or texture of another
rock changes
– by heat, pressure, and fluid activity
• Metamorphism imparts a foliated texture
– to many rocks,
• which is a parallel alignment of minerals
• Some metamorphic rocks have a mosaic
– of equidimensional minerals
– and are nonfoliated
• Texture and composition
– are the primary considerations
– in classifying many metamorphic rocks
Summary
• Plate tectonics
– driven by Earth’s internal heat and
– coupled with surface processes such as
weathering, erosion, and deposition
– accounts for the recycling of Earth materials