Transcript APLIKASI KOGNITIF SAINS (Applied Cognitive Science)

APLIKASI KOGNITIF SAINS
(Applied Cognitive Science)
Cognition can be defined as "the act or process of
knowing in the broadest sense; specifically, an intellectual
process by which knowledge is gained from perception or
ideas" (Webster's Dictionary)

Wilhelm Wundt's laboratory in 1879 to study human
thought processes is often used as the beginning of
modern psychology.

Psikologi Kognitif menjadi salah satu
major approaches
disamping behavioral (fokus pd perilaku tampak),
psikoanalisa (fokus pada ketidaksadaran) dan
humanistik (fokus pada personal growth dan interpersonal
relationship)
Beberapa Perspektif dalam
Psikologi Kognitif
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The Information Processing approach focuses on the
study of the structure and function of mental processing within
specific contexts, environments, or ecologies.
•
Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues developed the Taxonomy
of the Cognitive Domain as a way to classify the variety of
educational objectives related to what and how we know.
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Researchers in the area of intelligence study how human
beings learn from experience, reason well, remember important
information, and adapt to the environment.
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Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development
describes the process and stages by which human beings develop
the capacity to engage in abstract symbolic thought, one of the
distinguishing features of human activity.
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Jerome Bruner and Lev Vygotsky.
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Metacognition is another area in cognition that draws from a
number of different perspectives and is the study of how we develop
knowledge about one's own cognitive system.
Information Processing.
•
A primary focus of this approach is on memory (the
storage and retrieval of information)  the model
proposes that information is processed and stored in 3
stages (SENSORY MEMORI, SHORT TERM
MEMORY, LONG TERM MEMORY)
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF THE COGNITIVE
DOMAIN
•
The intent was to develop a classification system for three domains:
the cognitive, the affective, and the psychomotor.
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The major idea of the taxonomy is that what educators want
students to know (encompased in statements of educational
objectives) can be arranged in a hierarchy from less to more
LEVELcomplex.
KNOWLEDGE
COMPREHENSION
APPLICATION
ANALYSIS
DEFINITION
Student recalls or
recognizes information,
ideas, and principles
in the approximate
form in which they
were learned.
Student translates,
comprehends, or
interprets information
based on prior
learning.
Student selects, transfers, and uses data
and principles to
complete a problem
or task with a minimum of direction.
Student distinguishes,
classifies, and relates
the assumptions,
hypotheses, evidence,
or structure of a
statement or question.
SAMPLE
VERBS
Write
List
Label
Name
State
Define
Explain
Summarize
Paraphrase
Describe
Illustrate
Use
Compute
Solve
Demonstrate
Apply
Construct
Analyze
Categorize
Compare
Contrast
Separate
SYNTHESIS
Student originates,
integrates, and
combines ideas into a
product, plan or
proposal that is new
to him or her.
Create
Design
Hypothesize
Invent
Develop
EVALUATION
Student appraises,
assesses, or critiques
on a basis of specific
standards and criteria.
Judge
Recommend
Critique
Justify
SAMPLE
BEHAVIORS
The student will define
the 6 levels of Bloom's
taxonomy of the
cognitive domain.
The student will explain
the purpose of Bloom's
taxonomy of the
cognitive domain.
The student will
write an instructional
objective for each
level of Bloom's
taxonomy.
The student will
compare and contrast
the cognitive and
affective domains.
The student will
design a classification
scheme for writing
educational objectives
that combines the
cognitive, affective,
and psychomotor
domains.
The student will
judge the effectiveness of writing
objectives using
Bloom's taxonomy.
INTELLIGENCE
E. G. Boring, in the 1920's defined intelligence as whatever
intelligence tests measure.
Wechsler, defined it as the global capacity of a person to
act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with
his/her environment. Notice that there is a conative aspect to this
definition.
Sternberg has combined these two viewpoints into the
following: Intelligence is the cognitive ability of an individual to
learn from experience, to reason well, to remember important
information, and to cope with the demands of daily living.
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory (Sternberg, 1994)
Sternberg believes that intelligence is comprised of three
separate, though interrelated abilities: analytical (try to
solve familiar problems by using strategies that manipulate the
elements of a problem or the relationship among the elements
(e.g., comparing, analyzing)), creative (try to solve new
kinds of problems that require us to think about the problem and
its elements in a new way (e.g., inventing, designing)), and
practical (try to solve problems that apply what we know to
everyday contexts (e.g., applying, using)).
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Sternberg hypothesizes that intelligence relates to, and is
demonstrated in, three different aspects: (1) the internal world
of information processing, (2) experience and past learning,
and (3) the external world of adapting to, shaping and
selecting real-world environments.
PIAGET
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Piaget originally trained in the areas of biology and
philosophy and considered himself a "genetic
epistemologist." He was mainly interested in the
biological influences on "how we come to know." He
believed that what distinguishes human beings from
other animals is our ability to do "abstract symbolic
reasoning."
•
Piaget's views are often compared with those of Lev
Vygotsky (1896-1934), who looked more to social
interaction as the primary source of cognition and
behavior.
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Process of Cognitive Development. As a biologist, Piaget was
interested in how an organism adapts to its environment (Piaget
described as intelligence.) Behavior (adaptation to the
environment) is controlled through mental organizations called
schemes that the individual uses to represent the world and
designate action. This adaptation is driven by a biological drive
to obtain balance between schemes and the environment
(equilibration).
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Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes operating
at birth that he called "reflexes." In other animals, these reflexes
control behavior throughout life. However, in human beings as
the infant uses these reflexes to adapt to the environment, these
reflexes are quickly replaced with constructed schemes.
•
Piaget described two processes used by the individual in its
attempt to adapt: assimilation and accomodation.
Both of these processes are used thoughout life as the person
increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex
manner.
Lanjutan PIAGET
•Assimilation is the process of using or transforming
the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting
cognitive structures. Accomodation is the process of
changing cognitive structures in order to accept something
from the environment. Both processes are used
simultaneously and alternately throughout life. An example
of assimilation would be when an infant uses a sucking
schema that was developed by sucking on a small bottle
when attempting to suck on a larger bottle. An example of
accomodation would be when the child needs to modify a
sucking schema developed by sucking on a pacifier to one
that would be successful for sucking on a bottle.
•Stages of Cognitive Development.
Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development:
–Sensorimotor stage (Infancy). In this period (which has
6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor
activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the
world is limited (but developing) because its based on
physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire
object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory).
Physical development (mobility) allows the child to
begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some
symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end
of this stage.
Lanjutan PIAGET
–Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood).
In this period (which has two substages), intelligence is
demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use
matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but
thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner.
Egocentric thinking predominates
–Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early
adolescence). In this stage (characterized by 7 types of
conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area,
volume), intelligence is demonstarted through logical and
systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete
objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions
that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.
–Formal operational stage (Adolescence and
adulthood). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated
through the logical use of symbols related to abstract
concepts. Early in the period there is a return to
egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in
industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many
people do not think formally during adulthood.
METACOGNITION
•Definition
Knowledge about one's own cognitive system; thinking
about one's own thinking; essential skill for learning to
learn
Includes thoughts about (1) what we know or don't
know and (2) regulating how we go about learning.
•METACOGNITION consists of three basic elements:
Developing a plan of action
Maintaining/monitoring the plan
Evaluating the plan
•During - When you are maintaining/monitoring the plan of action,
ask yourself:
How am I doing?
Am I on the right track?
How should I proceed?
•After - When you are evaluating the plan of action ask yourself:
How well did I do?
Did my particular course of thinking produce more or less than
I had expected?
What could I have done differently?